Table 3.

Checklist of clinical signs of besnoitiosis in ungulates from sub-Saharan Africa between 1960 and 2021.

Country	Species	Host	Breed	No. of animals	Diagnostic test	Sex	Clinical signs observed	Reference
Rwanda	B. besnoiti	Cattle	Friesian	1	Histopathology& clinical examination	Female	- Hard scaly corrugated skin affecting both sides of the neck. - Multiple pinpoint grayish white foci in the sclera conjunctiva and corneal opacity of the left eye.	Habarugira et al., 2019
Zimbabwe	B. besnoiti	Cattle	–	5	Clinical examination	Females	- Dyspnea “magwiriri” (vernacular for snoring or labored breathing), followed by appearance of skin nodules. - Skin developed extensive thickening, puckering, and wrinkling, giving an “elephant skin” appearance with time. - Cyst-like structures in the sclera, and palpebral conjunctiva of some animals with lesions in the vulva.	Chatikobo et al., 2013
South Africa	B. besnoiti	Cattle	Bos taurus	1	Necropsy, histopathology, PCR	Male	- Gross external lesions included thin body condition, unilateral epistaxis, conjunctival edema, diffuse subcutaneous edema of ventral head and neck, and areas of dry, cracked, hard skin, in some places sloughing-off to expose underlying irregular erosions or ulcers affected the ventral sternum and trunk, the limbs from the elbow and stifle joints distally, and the entire scrotum	Dubey et al., 2013
Kenya	B. caprae	Goats	–	10	Histopathology, necropsy & clinical examination	Female & male	- Bucks had acute orchitis, characterised by swollen testes, would not allow palpation. - Fever of 41.8 °C. - Bucks afflicted with subacute and chronic orchitis had atrophied testes that were firm on palpation, and normal body temperature. - Chronically affected does and bucks had alopecia and hyperkeratosis of the face and the carpal, metacarpal, tarsal and metatarsal joints, and cysts in the conjunctiva.	Njenga et al., 1999b
Kenya	B. besnoiti	Cattle	Orma Boran	17	Histopathology & clinical examination	–	- Animals had sand-like cysts on the sclero-conjunctiva - There was mucus membrane on the nasal cavity - Mucus catarrhal to oozing conjunctivitis with crusts of dried exudates that attracted flies - The skin was thick and nodular, non-elastic and thrown in fold and some sections were alopecic - Generalized lymphadenomegaly of the superficial lymph nodes - Large and benign swellings exuding pus were occasionally encountered on the skin.	Njagi et al., 1998
South Africa	B. bennetti	Horse	Shetland pony stallion	1	Histopathology & clinical examination	Male	- Bilateral purulent nasal discharge with severe stridor nasalis and laryngealitis - Inspiratory dyspnoea - Occurrence of generalized thickening and diffuse alopecia of the skin over the ventral abdomen, antero-medial aspect of the hind legs, sub-cervical and presternal areas and the scrotum. - Development of prominent folds of thickened skin between the front legs and on the anteromedial aspects of the hind legs - Enlarged and oedematous prepuce - Anarsaca.	Van Heerden et al., 1993
Nigeria	B. besnoiti	Cattle	Freisian	2	Histopathology & clinical examination	Male	- Anorexia and fever - Thickening and wrinkling of the skin around the neck, eyes, muzzles, and abdominal regions. - Alopecia. - Inflammation, thickening and wrinkling of the scrotum. - The lesions on the skin and scrotum deteriorated progressively and became generalized in spite of treatment.	Sekoni et al., 1992
Nigeria	B. besnoiti	Cattle	Friesian	1	Histopathology& clinical examination	Male	- Infected bull had alopecia, severely thickened and wrinkled skin, often thrown into folds around the neck, shoulder and rump regions. - The skin was very thick, with small seed-like lumps of various sizes lying deep in the subcutaneous fascia when palpated. - The scrotum and the eyes were involved, with whitish miliary cysts in the conjunctiva.	Sannusi, 1991
Nigeria	B. besnoiti	Cattle	–	60	Histopathology & clinical examination	Male & females	- Gross lesions in the skin in 60 affected animals and scrotal skin of 36 bulls showed varying degrees of alopecia, thickening and encrustations. - All of the bulls which were examined at post-mortem had small diffuse nodules underneath the skin in the subcutaneous tissues, in the tunica vaginalis and albuginea and in the parenchyma of the testes and epididymis. - Nodules, consisted of aggregates of small, somewhat white, gritty granules, were also felt underlying the subcutaneous tissues of the clinically affected animals. - The devitalized gangrenous testes were brown in colour and soft in consistency.	Kumi-Diaka et al., 1981
Sudan	B. besnoiti	Cattle	Western Baggara	1	Histopathology& clinical examination	Male	- The ox had lesions in the form of alopecia, underlying subcutaneous tissue and muscles. - Observed nodules averaged 5 mm in diameter and each consisted of an aggregate of smaller, but somewhat uniform, raised, whitish nodules ranging between 0.5 mm and 0.7 mm in size.	Hussein and Haroun, 1975
Kenya	B. bennetti	Horse	–	3	Pathological examination	Male	- All geldings were emaciated and weak - Horses had alopecia in some areas, and hyperkeratosis measuring between 2 and 6 cm in diameter. - Lesions were spread all over the body but were very severe in the legs, shoulders and head. - In areas where the adjacent lesions coalesced, the foci were much larger in size and had an irregular shape. - Haemorrhagic erosions and ulcers covering the skin from the coronets to both joints - Haemorrhagic bed sores were at point of both ilium bones - The prepuce was swollen by oedema fluid and resembled a tumorous growth.	Bwangamoi, 1972
South Africa	B. besnoiti	Cattle	Afrikander	5	Clinical examination	Female & males	- Severe illness accompanied by fever and swelling of the prepuce, i.e. symptoms of the acute anasarcatous stage of besnoitiosis. - Severe sclerodermatitis and alopecia. - Presence of cysts in the scleral conjunctiva - The bull became sterile	Bigalke and Schoeman, 1967