Table 2.
Unstandardized Coefficients for the Structural Equation Model Predicting Pain Outcomes (N = 302)
| Measurement model | Model without control variables | Model with control variables | R² | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Estimate | SE | Z-test | R² | Estimate | SE | Z-test | ||
| Native American Status --> Ethnicity | 1.000 | — | — | — | 1.000 | — | — | — |
| Psychological Stress--> GSI | 1.000 | — | — | 0.980 | 59.030 | 5.277 | 11.187 | 0.605 |
| Psychological Stress--> PSS | 49.638 | 5.671 | 8.752 | 0.509 | 1.000 | — | — | 0.825 |
| Sleep Problems--> ISI | 1.000 | — | — | 0.905 | 1.000 | 0.899 | ||
| Sleep Problems--> FSS | 1.238 | 0.129 | 9.568 | 0.342 | 1.252 | 0.130 | 9.610 | 0.345 |
| Sleep Problems--> SleepQ | 0.130 | 0.009 | 14.913 | 0.692 | 0.131 | 0.009 | 14.861 | 0.692 |
| Pain Tolerance--> Heat Tolerance | 1.000 | 0.449 | 1.000 | 0.511 | ||||
| Pain Tolerance--> Cold Tolerance | 0.196 | 0.027 | 7.297 | 0.415 | 0.179 | 0.024 | 7.556 | 0.395 |
| Pain Tolerance--> Ischemia Tolerance | 0.218 | 0.031 | 7.151 | 0.384 | 0.205 | 0.027 | 7.494 | 0.384 |
| Pain Tolerance--> Electric Tolerance | 6.563 | 0.917 | 7.157 | 0.385 | 5.799 | 0.804 | 7.209 | 0.342 |
| Pain Facilitation --> TS-pain | 1.000 | — | — | — | 1.000 | — | — | — |
| Spinal Facilitation --> TS-NFR | 1.000 | — | — | — | 1.000 | — | — | — |
| Pain Inhibition --> CPM of Pain | 1.000 | — | — | — | 1.000 | — | — | — |
| Spinal Inhibition --> CPM of NFR | 1.000 | — | — | — | 1.000 | — | — | — |
| Error in PSS | 17.977 | 2.364 | 7.605 | 14.476 | 2.035 | 7.115 | ||
| Error in GSI | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.210 | 0.001 | 0.0004 | 2.788 | ||
| Error in ISI | 2.473 | 1.154 | 2.143 | 2.622 | 1.145 | 2.291 | ||
| Error in FSS | 69.948 | 6.855 | 10.204 | 69.408 | 6.819 | 10.179 | ||
| Error in SleepQ | 0.179 | 0.026 | 6.989 | 0.178 | 0.026 | 6.965 | ||
| Error in Heat Tol | 1.876 | 0.242 | 7.763 | 1.668 | 0.236 | 7.077 | ||
| Error in Cold Tol | 0.082 | 0.010 | 8.223 | 0.085 | 0.010 | 8.631 | ||
| Error in Ischemia Tol | 0.117 | 0.014 | 8.615 | 0.117 | 0.013 | 8.766 | ||
| Error in Electric Tol | 105.262 | 12.236 | 8.603 | 112.712 | 12.257 | 9.196 | ||
| Structural model | Estimate | SE | Z-test | R² | Estimate | SE | Z-test | R² |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Predicting Psychological Stress | 0.023 | 0.177 | ||||||
| Race --> Psychological Stress | 0.027 | 0.010 | 2.620 | 0.024 | 0.010 | 2.485 | ||
| Age --> Psychological Stress | -0.064 | 0.030 | -2.127 | |||||
| Sex --> Psychological Stress | -0.002 | 0.009 | -0.223 | |||||
| Physical Activity --> Psychological Stress | 0.014 | 0.011 | 1.307 | |||||
| BMI --> Psychological Stress | 0.0004 | 0.001 | 0.323 | |||||
| Gen Health --> Psychological Stress | -0.002 | 0.0004 | -5.876 | |||||
| Predicting Sleep Problems | 0.334 | 0.377 | ||||||
| Race --> Sleep Problems | 1.375 | 0.566 | 2.427 | 1.090 | 0.580 | 1.879 | ||
| Psychological Stress --> Sleep Problems | 30.173 | 4.445 | 6.789 | 33.210 | 4.758 | 6.981 | ||
| Age --> Sleep Problems | — | — | — | 1.299 | 1.827 | 0.711 | ||
| Sex --> Sleep Problems | — | — | — | -0.256 | 0.565 | -0.453 | ||
| Physical Activity --> Sleep Problems | — | — | — | 0.865 | 0.631 | 1.371 | ||
| BMI --> Sleep Problems | — | — | — | 0.016 | 0.072 | 0.219 | ||
| Gen Health -->Sleep Problems | — | — | — | -0.026 | 0.027 | -0.954 | ||
| Predicting Pain Tolerance | 0.013 | 0.115 | ||||||
| Psychological Stress --> Pain Tolerance | 1.222 | 1.332 | 0.917 | 0.819 | 1.751 | 0.468 | ||
| Sleep Problems --> Pain Tolerance | 0.010 | 0.025 | 0.388 | 0.012 | 0.028 | 0.448 | ||
| Age --> Pain Tolerance | — | — | — | -0.007 | 0.610 | -0.012 | ||
| Sex --> Pain Tolerance | — | — | — | -0.817 | 0.195 | -4.187 | ||
| Physical Activity --> Pain Tolerance | — | — | — | 0.180 | 0.212 | 0.848 | ||
| BMI --> Pain Tolerance | — | — | — | -0.028 | 0.024 | -1.182 | ||
| Gen Health ---> Pain Tolerance | — | — | — | 0.005 | 0.009 | 0.573 | ||
| Predicting Pain Facilitation (TS-Pain) | 0.063 | 0.129 | ||||||
| Psychological Stress --> Pain Facilitation | 0.886 | 12.966 | 0.068 | 8.406 | 16.197 | 0.519 | ||
| Sleep Problems --> Pain Facilitation | 0.714 | 0.249 | 2.863 | 0.624 | 0.261 | 2.392 | ||
| Age --> Pain Facilitation | — | — | — | 17.738 | 5.634 | 3.149 | ||
| Sex --> Pain Facilitation | — | — | — | 1.638 | 1.731 | 0.946 | ||
| Physical Activity --> Pain Facilitation | — | — | — | 4.886 | 1.952 | 2.504 | ||
| BMI --> Pain Facilitation | — | — | — | -0.338 | 0.219 | -1.544 | ||
| Gen Health --> Pain Facilitation | — | — | — | 0.066 | 0.083 | 0.790 | ||
| Predicting Spinal Facilitation (TS-NFR) | 0.008 | 0.126 | ||||||
| Psychological Stress --> Spinal Facilitation | 0.289 | 0.473 | 0.612 | 0.718 | 0.578 | 1.241 | ||
| Sleep Problems --> Spinal Facilitation | 0.006 | 0.009 | 0.614 | -0.001 | 0.009 | -0.117 | ||
| Age --> Spinal Facilitation | — | — | — | 0.980 | 0.200 | 4.904 | ||
| Sex --> Spinal Facilitation | — | — | — | -0.120 | 0.061 | -1.947 | ||
| Physical Activity --> Spinal Facilitation | — | — | — | 0.089 | 0.069 | 1.279 | ||
| BMI --> Spinal Facilitation | — | — | — | 0.001 | 0.008 | 0.174 | ||
| Gen Health --> Spinal Facilitation | — | — | — | 0.000 | 0.003 | -0.062 | ||
| Predicting Pain Inhibition (CPM-Pain) | 0.007 | 0.047 | ||||||
| Psychological Stress --> Pain Inhibition | 1.555 | 7.349 | 0.212 | 5.336 | 9.353 | 0.570 | ||
| Sleep Problems --> Pain Inhibition | 0.122 | 0.139 | 0.879 | 0.106 | 0.148 | 0.718 | ||
| Age --> Pain Inhibition | — | — | — | 6.822 | 3.265 | 2.090 | ||
| Sex --> Pain Inhibition | — | — | — | 1.046 | 1.003 | 1.043 | ||
| Physical Activity --> Pain Inhibition | — | — | — | 1.735 | 1.131 | 1.534 | ||
| BMI --> Pain Inhibition | — | — | — | -0.042 | 0.127 | -0.329 | ||
| Gen Health --> Pain Inhibition | — | — | — | 0.054 | 0.048 | 1.123 | ||
| Predicting Spinal Inhibition (CPM-NFR) | 0.012 | 0.075 | ||||||
| Psychological Stress --> Spinal Inhibition | 0.455 | 0.373 | 1.221 | 0.765 | 0.467 | 1.639 | ||
| Sleep Problems --> Spinal Inhibition | 0.001 | 0.007 | 0.200 | -0.003 | 0.007 | -0.382 | ||
| Age --> Spinal Inhibition | — | — | — | 0.357 | 0.161 | 2.210 | ||
| Sex --> Spinal Inhibition | — | — | — | -0.096 | 0.050 | -1.936 | ||
| Physical Activity --> Spinal Inhibition | — | — | — | 0.065 | 0.056 | 1.155 | ||
| BMI --> Spinal Inhibition | — | — | — | 0.008 | 0.006 | 1.198 | ||
| Gen Health --> Spinal Inhibition | — | — | — | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.481 | ||
| Residual for Psychological Stress | 0.007 | 0.001 | 7.596 | 0.005 | 0.001 | 7.640 | ||
| Residual for Sleep Problems | 15.774 | 2.053 | 7.685 | 14.549 | 1.934 | 7.522 | ||
| Residual for Pain Tolerance | 1.509 | 0.304 | 4.966 | 1.541 | 0.290 | 5.311 | ||
| Residual for Pain Facilitation | 185.019 | 17.089 | 10.827 | 172.007 | 15.866 | 10.841 | ||
| Residual for Spinal Facilitation | 0.262 | 0.023 | 11.288 | 0.232 | 0.021 | 11.268 | ||
| Residual for Pain Inhibition | 61.942 | 5.599 | 11.062 | 59.528 | 5.383 | 11.058 | ||
| Residual for Spinal Inhibition | 0.153 | 0.014 | 11.001 | 0.143 | 0.013 | 10.953 |
Note: z-tests ≥ 1.96 or ≤ −1.96 are statistically significant at p < .05. NHW = non-Hispanic White; NA = Native American; BMI = body mass index; HRV = heart rate variability; TS = temporal summation; NFR = nociceptive flexion reflex; CPM = conditioned pain modulation; SleepQ = Sleep Quality Index from PSQI; Gen Health = General Health subscale from the SF-36; PSS = Perceived Stress Scale; GSI = Global Severity Index from the SCL = −90; Tol = Tolerance.