Table 1.

Studies of mechanisms that MSC-EVs promote periodontal regeneration

Cell source	Cell type	Study model	Active molecules of EVs	Mechanisms	Effects	References
Non-odontogenic stem cells	BMSCs	In vitro	-	Reduce oxidative damage	Alleviate the pro-inflammatory state of macrophages induced by Pg-LPS	Ye et al. [52]
		In vivo (rat model) & in vitro	-	Mediate immunomodulation	Facilitate periodontal tissue regeneration	Liu et al. [59]
	MSCs	In vivo (rat model) & in vitro	-	Enhance damage repair	Enhance periodontal regeneration	Chew et al. [70]
	ADSCs	In vivo (rat model)	-		Have immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects	Mohammed et al. [72]
Odontogenic stem cells	PDLSCs	In vitro	-	Reduce oxidative damage	Display anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects	Čebatariūnienė et al. [57]
		In vivo (murine model) & in vitro	miR-590-3p	Mediate immunomodulation	Alleviated periodontal inflammatory injury and macrophage pyroptosis	Han et al. [61]
		In vitro	miR-155-5p		Alleviate inflammatory microenvironment	Zheng et al. [48]
		In vitro	miR-6515-5p	Enhance damage repair	Change the local inflammatory microenvironment and improve tissue regeneration	Xu et al. [50]
		In vivo (rat model) & in vitro	-		Facilitate pro-angiogenesis	Zhang et al. [69]
	GMSCs	In vivo (rat model) & in vitro	-	Reduce oxidative damage & mediate immunomodulation	Facilitate periodontal tissue regeneration	Zarubova et al. [53]
		In vitro	-		Reduce the inflammatory response	Zhang et al. [54], Wang et al. [55]
		In vivo (mouse model) & in vitro	exosomal miR-1260b	Mediate immunomodulation	Inhibit periodontal bone loss	Nakao et al. [49]
	DPSCs	In vivo (mouse model) & in vitro	miR-1246	Reduce oxidative damage & mediate immunomodulation	Promote alveolar bone and periodontal epithelium healing	Shen et al. [58]
		In vivo (mouse model) & in vitro	miR-1246	Mediate immunomodulation	Enhance anti-inflammatory property	Zhang et al. [64]
		In vitro	miR-378a	Enhance damage repair	Enhance cell angiogenesis	Zhou et al. [67]
	DFSCs	In vivo (beagle dog model) & in vitro	GSR and SOD1	Reduce oxidative damage & mediate immunomodulation	Inhibit alveolar bone loss and enhance periodontal regeneration	Huang et al. [46]
		In vivo (rat model) & in vitro	-	Enhance damage repair	Contribute to alveolar bone regeneration	Yi et al. [66]
		In vivo (rat model) & in vitro	-		Promote periodontal tissue regeneration	Ma et al. [71]
		In vivo (rat model) & in vitro	-		Promote periodontal regeneration in an inflammatory microenvironment	Shi et al. [47]
	SHED	In vivo (mouse model)	-	Reduce oxidative damage & enhance damage repair	Enhance the osteogenic ability of BMSCs	Wei et al. [56]
		In vitro	Wnt3a and BMP2	Enhance damage repair	Enhance the osteogenic ability of PDLSCs	Wang et al. [65]