Table 1.
Study Characteristics (n = 24).
| Study | Country | Study Design | Procedure (discipline) | iVR Simulator (software, headsets, imaging input) | Participants (n) | QATSDD Score | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Patients | Surgeons | ||||||
| Croci et al., 2020 20 | Switzerland | Case series | Spine surgery (orthopedic surgery) | SpectoVR (Diffuse Inc., Switzerland), HTC Vive, CT/MRI | 8 | NR | 7/42 (16.7%) |
| Giacalone et al., 2019 21 | Belgium | Case report | Lymphovenous anastomosis (plastic surgery) | Medicalholodeck (Switzerland), HTC Vive, SPECT-CT + lymphoscintigraphy | 1 | NR | 4/42 (9.5%) |
| González Romo et al., 2020 22 | Chile | Case report | ACA aneurysm clipping (neurosurgery) | Sketchfab (France), VR One Plus (Zeiss, Germany) + smartphone, CT | 1 | 1 | 7/42 (16.7%) |
| Kenngott et al., 2021 23 | Germany | Cross-sectional | Extended right hemihepatectomy (general surgery) | IMHOTEP (Karlsruhe Institute for Technology, Germany), HTC Vive, CT | 1 | 105 (57 medical students, 35 residents, 13 attending surgeons) | 17/42 (40.5%) |
| Ong et al., 2018 24 | United States | Case series | Congenital heart disease repair (cardiothoracic surgery) | DICOM to Print (3D Systems, United States), HTC Vive, CT | 2 | 4 | 4/42 (9.5%) |
| Parkhomenko et al., 2019 25 | United States | Historical control trial | Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (urology) | Bosc (Pyrus Medical, United States), Oculus Rift (Facebook Inc., United States), CT | iVR: 25 Control: 25 | 4 | 17/42 (40.5%) |
| Sadeghi et al., 2020 26 | Netherlands | Cross-sectional | Cardiac surgery (cardiothoracic surgery) | CardioVR (MedicalVR, Netherlands), Oculus Rift, CT | 6 | 5 | 17/48 (35.4%) |
| Sampogna et al., 2017 27 | Italy | Prospective study | Abdominal tumour resection (general surgery/urology) | Unity 3D (Unity Technologies, United States), Oculus Rift, CT/MRI | 15 | 20 | 13/42 (31.0%) |
| Shirk et al., 2019a 28 | United States | Historical control trial | Robotic-assisted partial nephrectomy (urology) | Unspecified smartphone app, Google Cardboard (Alphabet Inc., United States) + smartphone, CT/MRI | iVR: 30 Control: 30 | 3 | 24/42 (57.1%) |
| Shirk et al., 2019b 29 | United States | RCT | Robotic-assisted partial nephrectomy (urology) | Reveal (Ceevra Inc., United States), Google Cardboard + smartphone, CT/MRI | iVR: 44 Control: 48 | 11 | 31/42 (73.8%) |
| Sugiyama et al., 2021 30 | Japan | Prospective study | Cerebrovascular surgeries (neurosurgery) | BananaVision (Colorado State University, United States), Samsung Odyssey (Korea), CTA | 18 | 14 (10 residents, 1 fellow, 3 experts) | 16/48 (33.3%) |
| Timonen et al., 2020 31 | Finland | Cross-sectional (cadaveric) | Temporal bone surgery (otolaryngology) | SurgeryVision (Adesante, Finland), HTC Vive Pro, CT | 5 | 5 | 24/48 (50.0%) |
| Ujiie et al., 2021 32 | Japan | Case report | VATS sublobar resection (cardiothoracic surgery) | BananaVision, Samsung Odyssey, CT | 1 | NR | 7/42 (16.7%) |
| Vertemati et al., 2019 33 | Italy | Cross- sectional | Laparoscopic partial nephrectomy/nonspecific (general surgery) | Unity 3D, Samsung Gear (Korea) + smartphone, CT/MRI | 1 | 22 (15 PGY2-3 residents, 7 attending surgeons) | 16/42 (38.1%) |
| Xie et al., 2021 34 | United States | Historical control trial | Laparoscopic donor nephrectomy (urology) | Bosc (Pyrus Medical, United States), Oculus Rift, CT | iVR: 20 Control: 45 | 2 | 18/42 (42.9%) |
| Yamada et al., 2019 35 | Japan | Case report | Partial nephrectomy (urology) | Holoeyes (Japan), Mirage Solo (Lenovo Group Limited, Hong Kong), CT | 1 | 1 | 2/42 (4.8%) |
| Yan et al., 2020 36 | United States | Case series | Pediatrics MCA aneurysm procedures (neurosurgery) | SuRgical Planner (Surgical Theater, United States), Oculus Rift, CT | 5 | NR | 8/42 (19.0%) |
| Zawy Alsofy et al., 2021a 37 | Germany | Prospective study | MIS vs Open Dorsal spinal fusion (neurosurgery) | 3D Slicer (SurgicalPlanning Laboratory, United States), HTC Vive (HTC Corporation, Taiwan), CT/MRI | 12 | 12 | 15/42 (35.7%) |
| Zawy Alsofy et al., 2021b 38 | Germany | Prospective study | Meningioma resection (neurosurgery) | 3D Slicer, HTC Vive, CT-CTA/MRI | 30 | 10 | 18/42 (42.9%) |
| Zawy Alsofy et al., 2021c 39 | Germany | Prospective study + case report | Microvascular decompression of trigeminal neuralgia (neurosurgery) | 3D Slicer, HTC Vive, MRI | 24 | 10 | 19/48 (39.6%) |
| Zawy Alsofy et al., 2020a 40 | Germany | Prospective study | Deep infratentorial tumour resection (neurosurgery) | 3D Slicer, HTC Vive, MRI | 14 | 9 | 13/42 (31.0%) |
| Zawy Alsofy et al., 2020b 41 | Germany | Prospective study | ACA aneurysm clipping (neurosurgery) | 3D Slicer, HTC Vive, CTA | 26 | 10 | 18/42 (42.9%) |
| Zawy Alsofy et al., 2019 42 | Germany | Prospective Study | Cervical spine decompression (neurosurgery) | 3D Slicer, HTC Vive, CT | 10 | 12 | 15/42 (35.7%) |
| Zhou et al., 2019 43 | China | Cross-sectional (cadaveric) | Percutaneous endoscopic discectomy (orthopedic surgery) | Software and headset unspecified, CT | 12 | 4 | 11/42 (26.2%) |
Abbreviations: CT = computed tomography; CTA = computed tomography angiogram; MRI = magnetic resonance imaging; PGY = post-graduate year; QATSDD = quality assessment tool for studies with diverse designs; RCT = randomized controlled trial; SPECT = single-photon emission computerized tomography.