Table 1.

Localization of M-NPLs

M-NPLs (Size)	StudyType/cells/species	Results	Reference
PS-NPLs (100 & 500 nm)	In vitro, Human Umbilical Vein Epithelial cells (HUVECs)	•Both sizes interacted with HUVCs •Only 100 nm were internalized and initiated autophagy.	Lu, et al., 2022100
PS-NPLs, PS-COOH, PS-NH2 (100 nm)	Both in vitro and in vivo, Human intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2) and Specific pathogen-free (SPF) BALB/c mice (Male, 6 weeks)	•NPLs accumulated in mice tissues (liver, spleen, lung, kidney, small intestine, large intestine, testis, and brain) •Macropinocytosis and clathrin-mediated endocytosis were the main routes for mediating the uptake of NPLs in intestinal cells. •PS-NH2 and PS-COOH were observed to be more suitable for entering cells	Xu et al., 2021101
PS M-NPLs (0.5 μm)	Both in vitro and in vivo, Granulosa cells and Female Wistar rats, 6 weeks old, weighing ∼180 g	•PS-NPLs were internalized by Granulosa cells	An et al., 2021102
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) NPLs (200 nm)	In vivo, BALB/c female mice	•The digestive tract and gills were the primary sites of accumulation •NPLs distributed to the Liver, Spleen, lung, heart, and blood vessels	Gao et al., 2022103
Polystyrene Microsphere (70 nm, 5 μm, and 20 μm)	In vivo, Zebrafish (Danio rerio)	•5 μm particles accumulated in various tissues (gills, gut, and liver) •Variations in liver metabolomics	Lu et al., 2016104
Green, fluorescent PS-MPLs (0.1 and 1 μm)	Both In vitro and in vivo, Human Liver cell lines (HL7702) and SPF male C57 mice	•0.1 μm (not 1 μm) PS-MPLs entered liver cells and accumulated in the liver	Shen et al., 2022105
PS-NPLs (20 nm)	In vivo, Zebrafish embryo (Danio rerio)	•PS-NPLs accumulated in brain tissue	Sökmen et al., 2020106
PS-MPLs (3.54 ± 0.39 μm)	In vitro Human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293)	•PS-MPLs adhered to cells and were internalized	Chen et al., 2022107
PS-MPLs (213.7 ± 8.2 nm)	In vitro, Human gastric epithelial (GES-1) cells	•PS-MPLs interacted through halogen bonds with cell membrane •PS-MPLs also interacted with cellular proteins	Qin et al., 2022108
PS-M-NPLs (50 nm, 500 nm, and 5 μm)	In vitro, model cell membranes and rat basophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3) cells	•PS M-NPLs (50 nm) were internalized by clathrin- and caveolae-mediated endocytosis •PS M-NPLs (500 nm) were internalized by macropinocytosis •These particles also interacted with lysosomes and were released via lysosomal-mediated exocytosis	Liu et al., 2021109
Rhodamine-labeled polystyrene beads (20 nm)	In vivo, Time-pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats	•Particles were observed in various tissues (placenta, fetal liver, lungs, heart, kidney, brain, and spleen)	Fournier et al., 2020110
PS M-NPLs (50 nm, 100 nm and 1 μm)	Both In vitro and in vivo, Hemocytes and Mytilus galloprovincialis	•M-NPLs size dependently accumulated in M. galloprovincialis •PS-NPLs (50 nm) significantly translocated to hemolymph •Hemocytes internalized PS M-NPLs through different endocytosis pathways	Sendra et al., 2020111
PS M-NPLs ((0.5μm, 4μm, 10μm)	Both in vitro and in vivo, Germ cells (GC), Leydig cells (LC), and Sertoli cells (SC) and Male BALB/C mice	•PS M-NPLs (4 and 10 μm) accumulated in testis	Jin et al., 2021112
PS-NPLs (43.67 ± 1.08 nm)	Bovine oviductal epithelial cells (BOEC) and Human colon fibroblasts (HCF)	•NPLs internalized through ATP-independent pathway •NPLs were also released rapidly in the culture medium •NPLs traverse the cells by passive translocation	Fiorentino et al., 2015113
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) particles (0–80 μm)	In vivo, blue mussel (Mytilus edulis L.)	•HDPE particles were taken up by gills and stomach and were transported to digestive glands	von Moos et al., 2012114
PS-NPLs (100, 200, 500, 1000nm) & Negative charged PS-NPLs (100, 500, 1000 nm)	In vitro, Human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs)	•hiPSCs internalized PS-NPLs	Jeong et al., 2022115
PS-NPLs (50 nm)	In vitro, Human intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2)	•PS-NPLs accumulated in the cell and nucleus	Domenech et al., 2021116
PS-MPLs (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 μm)	In vivo, P. helgolandica var. tsingtaoensis and S. quadricauda	•PS-MPLs (1-2 μm) were taken up by cells •PS-MPLs (3-5 μm) were not engulfed by cells	Chen et al., 2020117
PS M-NPLs (460 nm, 1, 3, 10, 40, & 100 μm)	In vitro, Human Dermal Fibroblasts (HDFs), Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMCs), Red blood cells (RBCs) & the Human Mast Cell line (HMC-1)	•The uptake of PS-particles occurred through endocytosis and phagocytosis •van der Waals forces enhanced attachment of PS-particles to RBCs •PS-particles were observed after 24 h in the cytoplasm of HDFs and PBMCs •PS-FITC particles were engulfed by neutrophils and macrophages but not lymphocytes	Hwang et al., 2020118
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)-MPLs (50–500 μm)	In vivo, Catfish (Clarias gariepinus)	•PS- MPLs were accumulated in the GIT tract	Tongo et al., 2022119
PS-NPLs (44 and 100 nm)	In vitro, Gastric adenocarcinoma (AGS) cells	•44 nm PS-NPLs accumulated rapidly as compared to 100 nm in AGS cells •Both particles underwent clathrin-mediated endocytosis and an energy-dependent internalization.	Forte et al., 2016120