Table 1.

Mechanism of actions of various appetite hormones in appetite regulation

Hormones	Mechanism of action	References
Ghrelin	• Stimulates motility and gastric acid secretion • Enhances cardiovascular performance • Reduces blood pressure while also protecting the brain, heart, and kidney • Increases appetite • Encourages the use of carbohydrates as a fuel source while avoiding the use of fat • Lipogenesis is promoted by inhibiting lipid oxidation	[13]
Leptin	• Control the appetite, body mass, and reproductive function, as well as fetal development • Proinflammatory immune responses • Promote angiogenesis and lipolysis	[14]
Cholecystokinin	• Control insulin secretion • Have a therapeutic role in the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity	[15]
Glucagon-like peptide 1	• Cause satiety • Reduce appetite indirectly • Increasing insulin • Inhibiting glucagon secretion • Reduces stomach emptying and food intake • Restricting weight gain	[16] [17]
Oxyntomodulin	• Hypoglycemia effects and body weight reduction • Normalize adiposity, lipid metabolism, and hepatic steatosis	[18]
Insulin-like peptide-5	• Control appetite	[19]
Peptide YY	• Hunger suppression • Body weight management	[20]