Table 4.

Impact of consuming oats/beta-glucan on appetite hormones and weight management

Product/dosage	Subjects/study	Methodology	Results	References
Green coffee phenolic extract and oat beta-glucans	• 60 obese humans • Dose–response randomized parallel trial	• 72 h record of food intake • Blood samples • Lipid profile determination • Blood pressure measurement • Anthropometry measurement	• Prevent obesity • Prevent type 2 diabetes • Reduce the cardiovascular risk • Lower total body fat percentage	[56•]
Green coffee phenols and beta-glucan	• 29 humans • Randomized cross-over blind trial	• Measurement of body weight and BMI • Percentage body fat • Skinfold measurement • Intracellular and extracellular water • Body circumferences measurement • 72 h dietary record	• Not reduce weight without modifying dietary and physical exercise habits • No change in body composition	[68]
Oat beta-glucan supplement	• 37 obese humans • Randomized double-blind clinical trial	• Fasting glucose • Insulin • HOMA • C-peptide • HbA1c • ghrelin • Lipid profile leptin • GLP-1 • PYY • Caloric intake • Intestinal microbiota	• Increase the feeling of satiety • Improve glycemic control • Modify gut profile	[55•]
Low molecular weight barley beta-glucan +  High molecular weight beta-glucan	• 24 mice	• Serum biomarkers • Gut microbiota assessment • The concentration of short chain fatty acid • Measure absorption of fat • Real-time PCR	• Decrease in serum leptin • Decrease in LDL concentration • Reduction in messenger RNA expression of sterol regulatory element binding protein 1-c	[69]
Oat polar lipids	• 20 healthy persons	• Volunteers drank four liquid-based cereal test drinks • Test variables were assessed while fasting, 3 h after breakfast, and 2 h after a standardized meal	• Higher quantities of the gut hormones GLP-1 and PYY	[66]
Beta-glucan enrichment in bread	• 10 healthy adults	• Blood samples collected • Ghrelin • GLP-1 • PYY • Insulin • Glucose • Glycemic index	• Higher level of fullness • No change in GLP-1, PYY and ghrelin	[70]
Combining beta-glucan and whey protein in energy drinks	• 10 healthy females • Single blinded cross-over study	• Adaptive visual analog scale • Blood samples • Glycemic index • Acceptability • Palatability • BMI • Stadiometer	• Palatability and acceptability were similar • Drinks reduce postprandial blood glucose • Seen no effect on satiety and glycemic index • Natural sources are a good option	[71]
Beta-glucan	• 28 humans • Randomized placebo-controlled crossover trial	• Subjective appetite • Glucose • Insulin • Ghrelin • Gastric emptying • Peptide tyrosine assessed	• Effect on postprandial glucose • Effect on insulin • Effect on gastric emptying • No significant effect on appetite and food intake irrespective of the viscosity	[72]
Oatmeal	• 62 Hypercholesterolemic human • Randomized clinical trial	• Blood samples • Fecal samples • Lipid profile • Microbiota ribosomal RNA amplicon sequencing	• Lower cholesterol • Positive effect to firmicute phylum	[61]
Viscous dietary fiber (beta-glucan)	• 3877 humans • Randomized control trial	• Viscous fiber • Ad libitum diet • Body weight • Calorie restriction • BMI • Waist circumference, body fat	• Improve body weight • Reduce BMI • Reduce waist circumference	[73]
Oatmeal	• 5876 children	• National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey • 2015 USDA Healthy Eating Index • Dietary Research Food and Nutrient Database • Database of food pattern equivalents	• Children consuming oatmeal have good dietary quality and increase intake of essential nutrients	[74]
Oatmeal-based diabetes-specific nutritional formulas	• 22 humans with type 2 diabetes	• Amylin • Cholecystokinin • Ghrelin • Glucagon • Leptin • Peptide-YY	• Increased peptide YY and glucagon secretion	[75]
Oat	• 8 rats	• Compare and contrast the effects of oats (cereals) and soybeans (legumes), which are high in distinct types of NSP, on hunger regulation and fat storage in rats	• Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in vivo lower fat mass buildup and manage obesity	[65]
Oat beta-glucan	• 14 dogs	• Plasma concentration of peptide YY ghrelin • Serum concentrations of glucose • Total cholesterol lipoprotein • Total tract apparent macronutrient digestibility • Immunoglobulin variables measured	• Reduce total blood concentration of cholesterol • Reduce the number of red blood cells • Lower concentration of interleukin-4	[58]
Oat beta-glucan	• 40 participants • Randomized crossover design	• Fasting blood sample • Apid visco-analyzer • Automatic glucose analyzer • Blood samples	• 0.4 g addition of oat beta-glucan in instant meal decreases glucose peak rise by 20%	[76]
Oat beta-glucan	• 33 normal-weight humans • Randomized double-blind cross-over design	• Blood samples • Blood glucose determination • Bohin rheometer • Plasma insulin • Plasma GLP-1	• Reduces appetite • No reduction is seen in ad libitum eating • Regulates postprandial glycemia • No rise in secretion of plasma GLP-1	[57]
Oat flour	• 106 obese women	• 24-h dietary recall • Group A consumed snacks while group B consumed a low caloric balanced diet • Anthropometric measurement	• Reduce central obesity • Reduction in the percentage of body fat • Reduction in metabolic disorders related to obesity	[60]
Oat beta-glucan	• 40 mice	• Hyperlipidemic mouse model • Oleic acid based hepG2 cells model	• Lipid-lowering effect through AMPK signal pathway	[59]
Oatmeal breakfast	• 50 humans • Randomized crossover clinical intervention	• Fasting blood samples • Visual analog scale • Weight • Height • BMI • High-density lipoprotein • Low-density lipoprotein • Waist circumference • Triglyceride • Nutrition data system • Plasma ghrelin concentration	• Increase satiety • Increase in cholesterol • No change in glycemic index • Glycemic load decreases • No change in HDL\LDL ratio • No change in triglyceride • No change in liver enzyme • Increase in HDL • Increase in LDL	[77]
Liposomes fractionated oat oil	• 19 healthy persons	• Blood sample analyses • GLP-1 • GLP-2 • CCK • PYY	• Influence satiety • Delay fat digestion • Modify postprandial plasma lipids • Improve the health of gut	[64]
Oat beta-glucan	• 48 subjects	• At least a week apart, subjects ingested isocaloric morning meals with instant oatmeal, old-fashioned oats, or RTEC in random sequence	• The initial viscosity of oats may be essential for appetite reduction	[67]
Oat cereal beta glucan	• 60 mice	• HDL cholesterol • Plasma neural peptide Y • Arcuate neural peptide Y • mRNA • Total cholesterol	• Rise in intestine peptide YY and Plasma peptide YY	[63]
Oat beta-glucan	• 14 subjects	• Solubility, viscosity, and molecular weight of beta-glucan were measured • Visual analog scale calculated the satiety	Promotes satiety • Cholecystokinin release	[78]
Oat beta-glucan	• 14 humans	• Volunteers were given a control meal and three cereals with varied beta glucan concentrations and blood samples were taken over 4 h	• An increase in the dose of beta-glucan resulted in greater plasma PYY levels from 2 to 4 h after the test meal	[79]