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. 2023 Feb 16;22:32. doi: 10.1186/s12943-023-01742-w

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 1 — Biogenesis and classification of tDRs. During tRNA maturation, the 3’-trailer sequences are removed from pre-tRNA by the endonuclease Z (RNase Z/ELAC2), which results in the production of tRF-1. tiRNAs are generated by ANG cleavage of the anticodon loop of mature tRNAs under stressful conditions, including 5’-tiRNAs and 3’-tiRNAs. tRF-3 originates from the cleavage of the 3' end of the mature tRNA TѰC loop by Dicer or ANG. tRF-5 is cleaved in a Dicer-dependent manner in the D-loop or stem region of mature tRNA. Their subtypes are determined by the size and cleavage locations. i-tRFs are produced from the internal region of tRNAs, and can be classified into three types: D-tRF, A-tRF, and V-tRF, according to different cleavage regions