Table 2.
Bivariate associations between the predictors and childhood anemia (n = 167,017)
| Anemia status %[95% CI] | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Study variables | Bangladesh (DHS 2011) |
Cambodia (DHS 2014) |
India (NFHS 2016) |
Maldives (DHS 2016/17) |
Myanmar (DHS 2015) |
Nepal (DHS 2016) |
SSEA Pooled |
| Sample sizes (n) | n = 1,937 | n = 3,310 | n = 155,393 | n = 1,696 | n = 2,934 | n = 1,747 | n = 167,017 |
| Overall prevalence |
51 (48.4–53.6) |
55.4 (53.1–57.7) |
57.5 (57.1–57.9) |
50.8 (47.6–53.9) |
59 (56.6–61.3) |
51.4 (48.4–54.3) |
57.3 (56.9–57.7) |
| Mild anemia |
29.7 (27.5–32.1) |
29.23 (27.3–31.2) |
27.8 (27.5–28.1) |
29.3 (26.3–32.4) |
31.8 (29.7–33.9) |
25.9 (23.7–28.1) |
27.9 (27.6–28.2) |
| Moderate anemia |
20.6 (18.6–22.8) |
25.8 (23.8–27.9) |
28.2 (27.2–28.6) |
20.9 (17.9–24.3) |
26.7 (24.5–29) |
25.1 (22.4–27.8) |
27.9 (27.6–28.3) |
| Severe anemia |
0.6 (0.3–1.1) |
0.4 (0.2–0.6) |
1.4 (1.3–1.5) |
0.5 (0.2–1.3] |
0.4 (0.2–0.7) |
0.5 (0.2–0.9) |
1.4 (1.3–1.5) |
| Individual-level factors | |||||||
| Child-level factors | |||||||
| Sex of child | |||||||
| Male |
51.7 (48.1–55.3) |
57.5* (54.4–60.6) |
57.4 (56.8–57.9) |
54.4** (50.4–58.2) |
58.3 (55.1–61.4) |
51.8 (48.1–55.5) |
57.2 (56.7–57.7) |
| Female |
50.2 (46.6–53.9) |
53.2 (50.1–56.3) |
57.7 (57.1–58.3) |
46.7 (42.6–50.9) |
59.6 (56.5–62.7) |
51 (46.6–55.3) |
57.4 (56.8–57.9) |
| Child age (months) | |||||||
| 6–11 |
74.2*** (66.9–80.4) |
78.1*** (72-83.2) |
67.9*** (66.8–69) |
66.2** (55.6–75.3) |
79.5*** (72.9–84.8) |
69.1** (60.7–76.3) |
68.4*** (67.3–69.4) |
| 12–23 |
68.3 (62.8–73.3) |
73.3 (69.3–76.9) |
69.6 (68.8–70.3) |
53.6 (46.5–60.4) |
77.2 (72.7–81.1) |
66.1 (60.3–71.3) |
69.6 (68.8–70.3) |
| 24–35 |
46.6 (40.7–52.6) |
49.5 (45.3–53.7) |
61.1 (60.34-62.0) |
51.5 (45-57.9) |
59.1 (53.9–64.1) |
52.5 (46.9–58.1) |
60.5 (59.7–61.3) |
| 36–47 |
43.1 (38.2–48) |
45.2 (40.6–49.9) |
51.1 (50.3–51.9) |
51.4 (45.9–57) |
50.1 (45.7–54.4) |
41.2 (35.7–46.8) |
50.8 (50-51.5) |
| 48–59 |
36.8 (31.8–42.2) |
40.1 (35.3–44.9) |
44.0 (43.2–44.8) |
40.3 (45.9–57) |
42.8 (37.9–47.8) |
36.9 (31.2–42.3) |
43.7 (42.9–44.5) |
| Recent fever | |||||||
| No |
47.5 (44.1–50.9) |
53** (50.2–55.8) |
57.1*** (56.6–57.3) |
48.9 (45.9–52) |
58* (55.4–60.5) |
50.4 (47.2–53.7) |
56.8*** (56.4–57.2) |
| Yes |
56.66 (52.6–60.6) |
61.1 (57.3–64.8) |
60.5 (59.5–61.4) |
56.6 (48.6–64.2) |
63.6 (58.3–68.5) |
54.4 (48.7–60) |
60.3 (59.4–61.1) |
| Recent diarrhea | |||||||
| No |
51.1** (48.3–53.8) |
54** (51.5–56.4) |
56.9*** (56.4–57.3) |
50.6 (47.5–53.8) |
58.9* (56.3–61.4) |
51.5 (48.6–54.4) |
56.7*** (56.2–57.1) |
| Yes |
49.8 (38.3–61.3) |
65.3 (58.8–71.3) |
63.9 (62.7–65.1) |
52.9 (37.3–68) |
59.5 (52.4–66.2) |
48.9 (37.5–60.5) |
63.5 (62.4–64.7) |
| Children stunted | |||||||
| Not stunted |
48.8* (45.6–52.0) |
52.6** (49.9–55.4) |
53.9*** (53.4–54.5) |
50.7 (47.3–54.1) |
58.8 (56.1–61.5) |
49.1* (45.3–52.8) |
53.8*** (53.3–54.3) |
| Stunted |
53.3 (48.9–57.6) |
60.6 (56.9–64.1) |
63.1 (62.5–63.7) |
50 (41.5–58.5) |
59.1 (54.9–63.2) |
55.4 (50.7–60.1) |
62.7 (62.2–63.3) |
| Children underweight | |||||||
| Not underweight |
51.4 (48.1–54.6) |
53.52** (51-55.9) |
54.7*** (54.2–55.2) |
50.6 (47.3–54) |
58.1 (55.3–60.7) |
48.2** (44.7–51.7) |
54.6*** (54.1–55.1) |
| Underweight |
49.5 (45.1–53.9) |
60.7 (56.3–65.1) |
62.6 (61.9–63.2) |
53.1 (43.8–62.1) |
62.5 (57.6–67.1) |
59.5 (54.6–64.3) |
62.3 (61.7–62.9) |
| Children wasted | |||||||
| Not wasted |
50.9 (48-53.7) |
54.3** (52-56.7) |
56.7*** (56.2–57.2) |
50.5 (47.2–53.8) |
58.5 (56.1–61) |
49.6*** (46.6–52.7) |
56.5*** (56.1–56.9) |
| Wasted |
49.6 (43.5–55.8) |
64.6 (57.6–71.1) |
60.7 (59.8–61.5) |
51.6 (40.6–62.4) |
63.7 (55.1–71.5) |
68.1 (60-75.1) |
60.6 (59.7–61.5) |
| Mothers and household-level factors | |||||||
| Mothers age (years) | |||||||
| 15–24 |
54.2* (50.2–58.1) |
62.1** (57.9–66) |
61.37*** (60.6-62.05) |
54.1 (46-62.1) |
67.1** (62.1–71.6) |
55* (50.8–59.1) |
61.1*** (60.5–61.8) |
| 25–34 |
47.8 (44.1–51.5) |
53 (49.8–56.1) |
55.9 (55.3–56.4) |
50.9 (46.9–54.8) |
57.4 (54.1–60.6) |
49.9 (46.1–53.6) |
55.6 (55.1–56.1) |
| 35–49 |
49.1 (41.3–56.8) |
53.4 (48.5–58.3) |
54.6 (53.5–55.8) |
48.8 (42.1–55.6) |
57.3 (53.2–61.4) |
44.8 (35.9–54.1) |
54.4 (53.4–55.5) |
| Mothers education level | |||||||
| No education |
52.1 (45.9–58.1) |
55.3* (49.1–61.3) |
64.4*** (63.7–65) |
38.6 (18.9–62.8) |
53.6* (48-59.2) |
56.3* (51.5–60.9) |
64*** (63.3–64.6) |
| Primary |
52.3 (47.9–56.5) |
58 (55.1–60.8) |
59.6 (58.6–60.5) |
44.9 (39.1–50.9) |
60.9 (57.2–64.4) |
53.2 (47.1–59.2) |
59.1 (58.2–59.9) |
| Secondary or above |
49.8 (46.2–53.4) |
51.1 (47.2–55) |
53.7 (53.1–54.3) |
52.4 (48.9–55.9) |
58.6 (54.8–62.2) |
47.1 (42.9–51.4) |
53.6 (53.1–54.1) |
| Wealth quintile | |||||||
| Poorest |
55.8** (50.2–61.1) |
63.1*** (58.4–67.5) |
63.5*** (62.8–64.1) |
45.2** (40.9–49.5) |
59.8* (55.4–64) |
48.9** (43.3–54.6) |
63.1*** (62.4–63.7) |
| Poor |
57.8 (52.2–63.2) |
60.6 (55.7–65.3) |
58.9 (58.1–59.6) |
48.1 (42.9–53.2) |
59.5 (54.8–64) |
47.8 (41.8–53.9) |
58.7 (58-59.4) |
| Middle |
52.8 (47.3–58.4) |
54 (48.8–59.1) |
58.1 (57.2–58.9) |
45.8 (39.9–49.8) |
59.8 (54.2–65.3) |
60.1 (54.4–65.5) |
57.8 (57.1–58.6) |
| Richer |
44.1 (38.6–49.6) |
53.9 (48.8–58.9) |
53.1 (52.1–54.2) |
55.1 (44.2–65.4) |
53.9 (48.3–59.4) |
56.3 (49.8–62.6) |
53.1 (52.1–54.1) |
| Richest |
43 (37.3–48.9) |
43 (38.4–47.7) |
51.3 (50.1–52.6) |
78 (61-88.9) |
61.7 (55.4–67.7) |
39.2 (32.1–46.7) |
51.2 (50-52.4) |
| Maternal anemia | |||||||
| Not anemic |
43.8*** (40.5–47.1) |
49.2*** (46.4–52.1) |
49.5*** (48.9–50.1) |
43.2** (38.9–47.6) |
53*** (49.8–56.1) |
43.1*** (39.1–46.6) |
49.3*** (48.8–49.9) |
| Anemic |
60.5 (56.9–64.1) |
63.1 (59.7–66.3) |
63.7 (63.2–64.3) |
55.4 (51.2–59.6) |
67 (63.6–70.2) |
61.8 (57.7–65.7) |
63.6 (63.1–64.2) |
| Community-level factors | |||||||
| Place of residence | |||||||
| Urban |
45.8* (41.2–50.5) |
42.8*** (38.3–47.5) |
54.8*** (53.8–55.8) |
65.9** (56.1–74.5) |
60.6 (55,8-65.3) |
48.1* (44.2–51.9) |
54.6*** (53.7–55.6) |
| Rural |
52.5 (49.4–55.6) |
57.5 (54.9–60) |
58.6 (58.2–59.1) |
45.5 (42.9–48.2) |
58.5 (55.7–61.2) |
55.2 (50.8–59.6) |
58.4 (58-58.8) |
| Community maternal anemia a | |||||||
| Low |
44.2*** (40.7–47.8) |
49.7*** (46.4–52.9) |
50.4*** (49.8–51.1) |
44.6** (40.2–49.1) |
54.5** (50.9–58.1) |
42.6*** (38.8–46.5) |
50.3*** (49.7–50.9) |
| High |
57.3 (53.7–60.9) |
60.6 (57.3–63.7) |
63.7 (63.1–64.3) |
56.9 (52.1–61.5) |
63 (59.8–66.1) |
60.2 (56.2–64.1) |
63.5 (63-64.1) |
| Community parity b | |||||||
| Low |
48.6** (45.5–51.6) |
54.1 (51.2–57.1) |
55.4*** (54.8–55.9) |
52.6 (48.5–56.6) |
58.4* (55.5–61.2) |
48.6** (44.8–52.4) |
55.3*** (54.8–55.8) |
| High |
55.8 (50.9–60.6) |
57.7 (53.9–61.4) |
61.8 (61.2–62.5) |
46.5 (41.5–52.1) |
60.2 (55.5–64.7) |
55.5 (51–60) |
61.5 (60.9–62.1) |
| Community wealth c | |||||||
| Low |
47.1** (43.5–50.7) |
49.4*** (46.2–52.5) |
54.8*** (54.2–55.5) |
54.9** (50.1–59.9) |
58.2* (54.8–61.4) |
53.9** (50.2–57.6) |
54.8*** (54.1–55.4) |
| High |
54.8 (51.1–58.6) |
62.1 (58.8–65.1) |
60.3 (59.8–60.8) |
44.8 (41-48.72) |
59.7 (56.1–63.3) |
47.3 (42.6–52.1) |
60.1 (59.6–60.6) |
| Community female education d | |||||||
| Low |
53.3 (49.3–57.3) |
57.5* (54.6–60.4) |
62.7*** (62.2–63.3) |
46.6* (41.3–52) |
59.5* (56.2–62.4) |
56.5** (52.4–60.6) |
62.3*** (61.8–62.8) |
| High |
49.1 (45.6–52.6) |
51.9 (47.9–55.9) |
52.9 (52.3–53.3) |
53.5 (49.5–57.4) |
58.3 (54.6–61.8) |
45.9 (41.9–50) |
52.9 (52.3–53.5) |
| Community safe water access e | |||||||
| Low |
53.6 (45.9–61.3) |
- |
57.5 (57.1–58.1) |
58.3** (52.1–64.2) |
61.5 (57.4–65.4) |
53.3** (49.8–56.9) |
57.6 (56.8–58.3) |
| High |
50.7 (47.9–53.5) |
- |
57.4 (56.5–57.8) |
45.1 (42.1–48.2) |
57.3 (54.2–60.3) |
46.3 (41.2–51.6) |
57.4 (56.9–57.9) |
| Community toilet facility f | |||||||
| Low |
51.1 (47.5–54.6) |
59.8** (56.6–63.2) |
60.6*** (60.1–61.1) |
52.2 (39.1–65.1) |
59.5 (56.2–62.7) |
56.8** (51.5–61.9) |
60.6*** (60.1–61.1) |
| High |
50.9 (47-54.9) |
50.5 (47.3–53.7) |
54.4 (53.7–55.1) |
50.7 (47.4–54) |
58.3 (54.6–61.9) |
48.3 (44.6–52) |
54.3 (53.7–54.9) |
Frequency (n) are unweighted; percentage (%) are weighted, SSEA: South and Southeast Asia; *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001; a mean percent of women with Hb levels less than 12 g/dL; bmean percent of women with fertility rate of 5 children and above; cmean percent of households wealth quintiles categorized richer and richest and above; dmean percent of women with primary education level and above; emean percent of households with access to the improved water source; fmean percent of household with access to an improved toilet facility