Table 2.

An overview of the nanoparticle systems used in seed priming and coating, their characteristics, and their main effects on different seed species

Type of nanomaterial	Size in nanometers	Concentrations for seed treatment	Seed type	Key findings	References
Zinc oxide	20–30 nm	25–100 ppm	Wheat (T. aestivum L.)	Reduce cadmium uptake	[105]
	15–52 nm	5–200 ppm	Rice (O. sativa L.)	Improved biofortification	[229]
	35–40 nm	750–1250 mg/kg	Chili (C. annuum L.)	High antimicrobial activity	[230]
	40 and 60 nm	1–5000 ppm	Common bean (P. vulgaris L.)	Improved biomass	[98]
	21.3 nm	20–60 mg/L	Lupin (Lupini stermis L.)	High salinity resistance	[99]
	32 nm	50–500 ppm	Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.)	Antimicrobial resistance	[100]
Iron	50 nm	10–500 ppm	Sorghum (S. bicolor (L.) Moench)	Increased water content in leaves	[91]
	19–30 nm	20–160 ppm	Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum and Nakay varieties)	Increased the activity of plant growth regulator	[231]
	6–20 nm	30 µg/mL	Rice (O. sativa L.)	High antimicrobial activity	[93]
	80 nm	25–1000 µg/mL	Wheat (T. aestivum L.), types WL711 (low-iron genotype) and IITR26 (high-iron genotype)	Increased harvest yield	[95]
	33.8 ± 3.59 nm	10–160 mg/L	Rice (O. sativa L.)	Improved water uptake	[72]
	25–100 nm	50 µg/mL	Rice (O. sativa L.)	Improved enzymatic activity	[71]
	20–30 nm	20–40 ppm	Wheat (T. aestivum L.) seeds of varieties galaxy-13, Pakistan-13, and NARC-11	It develops abiotic stress resistance in wheat	[103]
Manganese (III) oxide	50 nm	0.1–1 mg/mL	Jalapeño (C. annuum L.)	Salinity resistance development	[105]
Copper	25, 40, and 80 nm	1–1000 mg/L	Common bean (P. vulgaris L.)	High concentrations showed toxic effects on seed germination	[102]
	15–30 nm	20–40 ppm	Wheat (T. aestivum L.) seeds of varieties galaxy-13, Pakistan-13, and NARC-11	Abiotic stress resistance development	[102]
Platinum	3.2 ± 0.8 nm	Concentrated solution at 1.0 mM	Pea (P. sativum L.)	Decreased microorganism’s colonization	[198]
Carbon	13–14 nm	70 µg/mL	Wheat (T. aestivum L.)	Improved harvest	[232]
Molybdenum	35–50 nm	10 mg/L	Chickpea (C. arietinum L.)	Increased antioxidant enzymes and harvest	[233]
Silver	6–26 nm	10 and 20 mg/mL	Rice seeds (O. sativa L. cv. KDML 105)	Increased aquaporin gene expression	[119]
	11.6 ± 2.40 nm	31.3 µg/mL	Onion (A. cepa L.)	Potentially increased biochemical activity	[120]
	10–35 nm	0–50 mg/L	Wheat seeds (T. aestivum L.)	Increased seed and seedlings vigor	[121]
	5–30 nm	10–50 µg/mL	Soybean (G. max (L.) Merr.)	Potential antimicrobial activity	[123]
Gold	10–30 nm	5–15 ppm	Maize (Z. mays L.)	Improved seed and seedlings vigor	[124]
	93.68 ± 2.06 nm	31.3 µg/mL	Onion (A. cepa L.)	Improved seed and seedlings vigor	[66]
Silica	90 nm	300–1200 ppm	Wheat (T. aestivum L.)	Reduced cadmium uptake	[234]
	~ 100 nm	2 mg/mL	Pea seeds (P. sativum L.)	Improved seed and seedlings vigor	[18]
Chitosan	259.4 ± 4.7 nm	1–100 µg/mL	Wheat (T. aestivum L.)	Increased plant growth regulator (auxin)	[235]
	95 ± 2 nm	20 µg/L	Common bean (P. vulgaris L.)	Increased ROS levels	[69]
	122 nm	0.05–0.2%	Rice (O. sativa L.)	Potential antimicrobial activity	[129]
	560 nm	0.1%	Chickpea (C. arietinum L.)	Improved activity of plant growth regulator	[236]
	450 ± 10 nm	0.05–0.0005 mg/mL	Tomato (S. lycopersicum var. cerasiforme)	Improved harvest yield	[237]
	400 nm	250 mg/kg	Pearl millet (P. glaucum)	Improved plant growth regulators	[132]
	374.3 ± 8.2 nm	0.01–0.16% w/v	Maize seeds (Z. mays L.)	Improved seed and seedlings vigor	[133]
	387.7 ± 4 nm	0.01–0.16% w/v	Maize seeds (Z. mays L.)	Development of biotic resistance and improved harvest yield	[101]
Lignin	200–250 nm	0.5, 1, and 1.5 mg/mL	Arugula (Erucavisicaria L.) Cav. subsp. sativa), tomato (S. lycopersicum L. cv. Ciliegino), and chickpea (C. arietinum L.)	Improved seed and seedlings vigor	[137]