Table 3.
Cross-sectional analysis of the effect of PM10, NO, NO2, and SO2 on bone mineral density in the Clinical Trials and Observational Study participants of the Women's Health Initiative (N = 32,663 visits).
| BMD | Average period | PM10 |
NO |
NO2 |
SO2 |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Est∗ | 95% CI | Est∗ | 95% CI | Est∗ | 95% CI | Est∗ | 95% CI | ||
| Whole body | 1-yr average | −0.047 | (−0.054, −0.039) | −0.031 | (−0.034, −0.027) | −0.050 | (−0.055, −0.044) | −0.026 | (−0.029, −0.022) |
| 3-yr average | −0.051 | (−0.058, −0.043) | −0.029 | (−0.034, −0.023) | −0.049 | (−0.054, −0.043) | −0.017 | (−0.022, −0.011) | |
| 5-yr average | −0.053 | (−0.060, −0.045) | −0.026 | (−0.031, −0.020) | −0.055 | (−0.062, −0.047) | −0.018 | (−0.023, −0.012) | |
| Total Hip | 1-yr average | −0.022 | (−0.031, −0.012) | −0.020 | (−0.027, −0.012) | −0.018 | (−0.023, −0.012) | −0.025 | (−0.030, −0.019) |
| 3-yr average | −0.024 | (−0.033, −0.014) | −0.020 | (−0.025, −0.014) | −0.015 | (−0.022, −0.007) | −0.025 | (−0.032, −0.017) | |
| 5-yr average | −0.026 | (−0.035, −0.016) | −0.018 | (−0.023, −0.012) | −0.015 | (−0.024, −0.005) | −0.027 | (−0.041, −0.022) | |
| Femoral Neck | 1-yr average | −0.013 | (−0.020, −0.005) | −0.018 | (−0.021, −0.014) | −0.019 | (−0.083, −0.045) | −0.019 | (−0.024, −0.013) |
| 3-yr average | −0.015 | (−0.022, −0.007) | −0.020 | (−0.025, −0.014) | −0.021 | (−0.028, −0.013) | −0.018 | (−0.025, −0.010) | |
| 5-yr average | −0.017 | (−0.026, −0.007) | −0.021 | (−0.026, −0.015) | −0.024 | (−0.029, −0.018) | −0.021 | (−0.028, −0.013) | |
| Lumbar spine | 1-yr average | −0.014 | (−0.027, −0.0002) | −0.030 | (−0.035, −0.024) | −0.029 | (−0.038, −0.019) | −0.032 | (−0.041, −0.022) |
| 3-yr average | −0.015 | (−0.028, −0.0001) | −0.027 | (−0.034, −0.019) | −0.022 | (−0.033, −0.010) | −0.028 | (−0.037, −0.018) | |
| 5-yr average | −0.026 | (−0.035, −0.016) | −0.018 | (−0.023, −0.012) | −0.020 | (−0.033, −0.006) | −0.033 | (−0.044, −0.021) | |
Est∗: Estimates from multivariable adjusted models for demographic characteristics (i.e., age, race/ethnicity, education, income, neighborhood socioeconomic status, and US Census region), clinical characteristics (body mass index), behavioral characteristics (smoking, physical activity), study membership (clinical trials or observational study), hormone therapy randomization arm (hormone treatment or control), dietary modification trial arm, and calcium/vitamin D randomization arm (calcium/vitamin D or control). 95% CI: 95% confidence interval; PM10: particulate matter <10 μm; SO2: sulfur dioxide; NO and NO2: nitrogen oxides; BMD, bone mineral density.