. 2023 Feb 18;12(2):755–788. doi: 10.1007/s40123-023-00675-3

Table 3.

Potential effect of blue light irradiation on the retina

Reference, year	Species (subject/tissue/cells/animals)	Light sources of irradiation, exposure times	Effect of blue light irradiation
Arnault et al., 2013 [16]	Porcine eye RPE cells	LED and filter, 10 nm illumination bands centered from 380 to 520 nm in 10 nm increments; The intensity of each band was calculated according to the solar intensity received by the retina after filtering by the optics of the eye; Exposure times: 18 h	Loss of cell viability (maximal for wavelengths from 415 to 455 nm)
Noell et al., 1966 [60]	Rat	Fluorescent lamps Monochromatic light of various wavelengths: 1200 to 2500 lx or green filter; Variation of the temperature; Exposures times: 1–2 days	Continuous exposure to visible light to moderate levels of damaged photoreceptor cells Light damage classified into two types: class I (damage induced by low-intensity light exposure for long durations) and class II (damage induced by relatively high-intensity light exposure for short periods)
Van Norren et al., 1990 [65]	Rat	Xenon light, white, irradiant dose from 4 J/cm² at 379 nm to 2000 J/cm² at 559 nm; Narrow band spectral light; Exposure times: 10 s to 1 h	Susceptibility for damage sharply increased towards the ultraviolet Susceptibility to photic injury in rat is comparable to that in primates
Marie et al., 2020 [66]	Porcine retina cone receptors	LED, 10 nm wavelength bands between 390 and 510 nm, plus the 630 nm band; Exposure times: 15 h	The near UV visible range (415 and 455 nm) is the most toxic wavelengths; Toxicity occurred in the blue–violet light (425–445 nm) for exposures at intensities of sunlight received by the retina; Macular degeneration; Retinitis pigmentosa; The toxicity originates from a porphyrin
Krigel et al., 2016 [67]	Retina of albinos and pigmented rats	LEDs (cold white, blue, and green), fluorocompact bulbs, fluorescent; Exposure times: 24 h; Exposure at high luminance was compared with a cyclic (dark/light) exposure at domestic levels for 1 week and 1 month	Phototoxicity; Blue light component emitted by white LEDs at usual domestic luminance induced more retinal degeneration and the development of necrosis than other light sources
Chamorro et al., 2013 [68]	Human retinal pigment epithelial cells	LED: 468 nm (blue), 525 nm (green), 616 nm (red), and white light; Exposure times: three cycles of light–darkness (12 h/12 h)	LED radiations: Decrease in cellular viability; Increase in cellular apoptosis; Increase in ROS production; Increase in DNA damage; Apoptosis more important in cells exposed to white and blue Three light–darkness (12 h/12 h) cycles of exposure to LED lighting affect in vitro human retinal pigment epithelial cells
Kuse et al., 2014 [69]	Murine photoreceptor-derived cells (661 W)	LEDs: 464 nm (blue), 456–553 nm (white), 522 nm (green); Exposure times: 24 h	Blue LED light Increase of ROS production; Alteration of the protein expression level; Blue and white LED Aggregation of short-wavelength opsins (S-opsin), leading to severe cell damage; Damage of retinal cone photoreceptor cells; N-Acetylcysteine (antioxidant) protected against the cellular damage induced by blue LED light
Abdhou et al., 2022 [70]	Human RPE cells	Solar simulator and blue light filtering IOL Cells were exposed or not to BL, with the absence or presence of either a CIOL < 400 nm, or a YIOL Exposure time: 30 minn	Blue light is deleterious to RPE cells due to increased oxidative stress and cell death Blue light increased cellular and mitochondrial total ROS levels These effects were attenuated by filtering this radiation. YIOL decreased cellular and mitochondrial ROS levels The increase in ROS production was coupled with an increase in cell death, which decreased when cells were protected with YIOL Pretreatment of cells with N-acetylcysteine abolished the increase in cell death
Wu et al., 1999 [71]	Rat retina	Fluorescent lamp, Blue light 400–480 nm of 0.64 W/m³; Exposure times: 3–6 h	Photoreceptor cell apoptosis
Shang et al., 2017 [93]	Sprague–Dawley rat	LEDs: 460 nm (blue), 530 nm (green), 620 nm (red); Exposure times: from 3–9 to 28 days under a 12 h dark/12 h light cycle	Blue LED group induced more: functional damage photochemical injury (apoptosis and necrosis of photoreceptors and RPE) oxidative stress than that of green or red LED groups
Jaardane et al., 2015 [94]	Wistar Rats	LEDs (blue region), and 449 nm, 467 nm, 473 nm, 507 nm; Exposure times: 6, 12, 18, 24, 48, and 72 h	Oxidative damage and retinal injury; Retinal degeneration; Loss of photoreceptors: Activation of caspase-independent apoptosis, necrosis, necroptosis; Wavelength dependence of the effects

Reference, year

Species (subject/tissue/cells/animals)

Light sources of irradiation, exposure times

Effect of blue light irradiation

Arnault et al., 2013

[16]

Porcine eye RPE cells

LED and filter, 10 nm illumination bands centered from 380 to 520 nm in 10 nm increments;

The intensity of each band was calculated according to the solar intensity received by the retina after filtering by the optics of the eye;

Exposure times: 18 h

Loss of cell viability (maximal for wavelengths from 415 to 455 nm)

Noell et al., 1966

[60]

Rat

Fluorescent lamps

Monochromatic light of various wavelengths: 1200 to 2500 lx or green filter;

Variation of the temperature;

Exposures times: 1–2 days

Continuous exposure to visible light to moderate levels of damaged photoreceptor cells

Light damage classified into two types: class I (damage induced by low-intensity light exposure for long durations) and class II (damage induced by relatively high-intensity light exposure for short periods)

Van Norren et al., 1990

[65]

Rat

Xenon light, white, irradiant dose from 4 J/cm² at 379 nm to 2000 J/cm² at 559 nm;

Narrow band spectral light;

Exposure times: 10 s to 1 h

Susceptibility for damage sharply increased towards the ultraviolet

Susceptibility to photic injury in rat is comparable to that in primates

Marie et al., 2020

[66]

Porcine retina cone receptors

LED, 10 nm wavelength bands between 390 and 510 nm, plus the 630 nm band;

Exposure times: 15 h

The near UV visible range (415 and 455 nm) is the most toxic wavelengths;

Toxicity occurred in the blue–violet light (425–445 nm) for exposures at intensities of sunlight received by the retina;

Macular degeneration;

Retinitis pigmentosa;

The toxicity originates from a porphyrin

Krigel et al., 2016

[67]

Retina of albinos and pigmented rats

LEDs (cold white, blue, and green), fluorocompact bulbs, fluorescent;

Exposure times: 24 h;

Exposure at high luminance was compared with a cyclic (dark/light) exposure at domestic levels for 1 week and 1 month

Phototoxicity;

Blue light component emitted by white LEDs at usual domestic luminance induced more retinal degeneration and the development of necrosis than other light sources

Chamorro et al., 2013

[68]

Human retinal pigment epithelial cells

LED: 468 nm (blue), 525 nm (green), 616 nm (red), and white light;

Exposure times: three cycles of light–darkness (12 h/12 h)

LED radiations:

Decrease in cellular viability;

Increase in cellular apoptosis;

Increase in ROS production;

Increase in DNA damage;

Apoptosis more important in cells exposed to white and blue

Three light–darkness (12 h/12 h) cycles of exposure to LED lighting affect in vitro human retinal pigment epithelial cells

Kuse et al., 2014

[69]

Murine photoreceptor-derived cells (661 W)

LEDs: 464 nm (blue), 456–553 nm (white), 522 nm (green);

Exposure times: 24 h

Blue LED light

Increase of ROS production;

Alteration of the protein expression level; Blue and white LED

Aggregation of short-wavelength opsins (S-opsin), leading to severe cell damage;

Damage of retinal cone photoreceptor cells;

N-Acetylcysteine (antioxidant) protected against the cellular damage induced by blue LED light

Abdhou et al., 2022

[70]

Human RPE cells

Solar simulator and blue light filtering IOL

Cells were exposed or not to BL, with the absence or presence of either a CIOL < 400 nm, or a YIOL

Exposure time: 30 minn

Blue light is deleterious to RPE cells due to increased oxidative stress and cell death

Blue light increased cellular and mitochondrial total ROS levels

These effects were attenuated by filtering this radiation. YIOL decreased cellular and mitochondrial ROS levels

The increase in ROS production was coupled with an increase in cell death, which decreased when cells were protected with YIOL

Pretreatment of cells with N-acetylcysteine abolished the increase in cell death

Wu et al., 1999

[71]

Rat retina

Fluorescent lamp, Blue light 400–480 nm of 0.64 W/m³;

Exposure times: 3–6 h

Photoreceptor cell apoptosis

Shang et al., 2017

[93]

Sprague–Dawley rat

LEDs: 460 nm (blue), 530 nm (green), 620 nm (red);

Exposure times: from 3–9 to 28 days under a 12 h dark/12 h light cycle

Blue LED group induced more:

functional damage

photochemical injury (apoptosis and necrosis of photoreceptors and RPE)

oxidative stress than that of green or red LED groups

Jaardane et al., 2015

[94]

Wistar Rats

LEDs (blue region), and 449 nm, 467 nm, 473 nm, 507 nm;

Exposure times: 6, 12, 18, 24, 48, and 72 h

Oxidative damage and retinal injury;

Retinal degeneration;

Loss of photoreceptors: Activation of caspase-independent apoptosis, necrosis, necroptosis;

Wavelength dependence of the effects

AMD age-related macular degeneration, CCTs correlated color temperatures, CIOL clear UV-filtering IOL, DNA deoxyribonucleic acid, IOL intraocular filtering, K kelvin, LED light emitting diodes, nm nanometer, RCT randomized clinical trial, RPE retinal pigment epithelium, ROS reactive oxygen species, UV ultraviolet, VEGF vascular endothelial growth factor, YIOL yellow UV- and BL-filtering IOL