Table 1.
Participant Characteristics
| Characteristics | Long COVID Symptoms, N = 476 | No Long COVID Symptoms, N = 1004 | Did Not Answer Survey, N = 11 825 | P Value Comparing Symptoms Versus No Symptoms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, mean (SD) | 53.13 (13.27) | 52.50 (14.13) | … | .42 |
| Female sex at birth | 356 (75.11%) | 661 (65.90%) | 8153 (69.34%) | .0004 |
| Race/Ethnicitya | ||||
| White | 433 (92.52%) | 924 (92.77%) | 10 374 (89.12%) | .86 |
| Black or African American | 15 (3.21%) | 33 (3.31%) | 493 (4.24%) | .91 |
| Asian | 12 (2.56%) | 24 (2.41%) | 452 (3.88%) | .80 |
| Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander | 3 (0.64%) | 1 (0.10%) | 42 (0.36%) | .07 |
| American Indian or Alaska Native | 14 (2.99%) | 11 (1.10%) | 207 (1.78%) | .009 |
| Other/Does Not Know | 25 (5.34%) | 32 (3.21%) | 642 (5.51%) | .05 |
| Hispanic Ethnicity | 55 (11.60%) | 75 (7.48%) | 1378 (11.72%) | .009 |
| MacArthur SES, mean (SD) | 6.64 (1.54) | 7.08 (1.46) | 6.54 (1.68) | .0000 |
| Highest Educational Level | ||||
| No high school degree | 0 | 3 (0.30%) | 79 (0.67%) | .0000 |
| High school graduate (or equivalent) | 16 (3.38%) | 15 (1.50%) | 622 (5.29%) | |
| College degree (including associate's) | 279 (58.86%) | 486 (48.60%) | 6697 (56.97%) | |
| Graduate degree | 171 (36.08%) | 488 (48.80%) | 4188 (35.62%) | |
| Other | 8 (1.69%) | 8 (0.80%) | 168 (1.43%) | |
| US resident | 461 (96.85%) | 984 (98.01%) | 11 552 (97.72%) | .17 |
| Primary Employment | ||||
| Healthcare | 95 (19.96%) | 187 (18.63%) | 2743 (23.20%) | .06 |
| Education | 71 (14.92%) | 154 (15.34%) | 1410 (11.93%) | |
| Retail | 11 (2.31%) | 14 (1.39%) | 333 (2.82%) | |
| Transportation | 12 (2.52%) | 12 (1.20%) | 213 (1.80%) | |
| Arts, entertainment, and recreation | 13 (2.73%) | 33 (3.29%) | 298 (2.52%) | |
| Hospitality and food services | 4 (0.84%) | 23 (2.29%) | 288 (2.44%) | |
| Finance and insurance | 26 (5.46%) | 46 (4.58%) | 700 (5.92%) | |
| Scientific and technical services | 30 (6.30%) | 100 (9.96%) | 792 (6.70%) | |
| Utilities | 3 (0.63%) | 6 (0.60%) | 85 (0.72%) | |
| Construction | 9 (1.89%) | 8 (0.80%) | 231 (1.95%) | |
| Manufacturing | 14 (2.94%) | 23 (2.29%) | 324 (2.74%) | |
| Other | 188 (39.50%) | 398 (39.64%) | 4405 (37.26%) | |
| COVID-19 Variant Wave | ||||
| Initial | 236 (49.58%) | 244 (24.30%) | 5861 (49.56%) | <.0001 |
| Alpha | 21 (4.41%) | 48 (4.78%) | 710 (6.00%) | |
| Delta | 103 (21.64%) | 207 (20.62%) | 2202 (18.62%) | |
| Omicron | 116 (24.37%) | 505 (50.30%) | 3052 (25.81%) | |
| Days since COVID-19, median (IQR) | 360.0 (129–506) | 129.0 (108–343) | … | <.0001 |
| Hospitalized due to COVID | 7 (1.47%) | … | 29 (0.25%) | .0001 |
| Max number of acute COVID-19 symptoms, mean (SD) | 5.44 ± 2.82 | 3.99 ± 2.39 | 4.08 ± 2.73 | <.0001 |
| 1st vaccine dose before COVID-19 | 213 (44.75%) | 710 (70.72%) | 5111 (43.22%) | <.0001 |
| 1st vaccine dose after COVID-19 | 216 (45.38%) | 211 (21.02%) | 3276 (27.70%) | <.0001 |
| No reported vaccine | 47 (9.87%) | 83 (8.27%) | 3438 (29.07%) | .31 |
| Average days/week physical activity pre-COVID, mean (SD) | 2.49 ± 1.75 | 2.70 ± 1.90 | 2.52 ± 1.87 | .18 |
| Average days/week physical activity post-COVID (all), mean (SD) | 2.20 ± 1.73 | 2.62 ± 1.84 | 2.19 ± 1.84 | .0000 |
| Average days/week physical activity post-COVID (only those with pre-COVID data), mean (SD) | 2.14 ± 1.73 | 2.55 ± 1.83 | 2.17 ± 1.82 | .009 |
| Average hours of sleep/night pre-COVID, mean (SD) | 6.60 ± 0.93 | 6.85 ± 0.81 | 6.79 ± 0.92 | .0001 |
| Average hours of sleep/night post-COVID, mean (SD) | 6.62 ± 0.99 | 6.88 ± 0.86 | 6.83 ± 1.05 | .0000 |
| Average hours of sleep/night post-COVID (only those with pre-COVID data), mean (SD) | 6.68 ± 1.01 | 6.89 ± 0.85 | 6.89 ± 1.03 | .002 |
| BMI, mean (SD) | 30.58 (7.81) | 28.12 (6.91) | 29.47 (7.74) | <.0001 |
| Tobacco use | 29 (6.09%) | 52 (5.18%) | 974 (8.75%) | .47 |
| Marijuana use | 30 (6.30%) | 70 (6.97%) | 953 (8.56%) | .63 |
| Alcoholic drinks/week pre-COVID, mean (SD) | 4.19 ± 5.71 | 4.81 ± 5.59 | 4.35 ± 5.65 | .15 |
| Alcoholic drinks/week post-COVID (only those with pre-COVID data), mean (SD) | 3.77 ± 5.28 | 4.41 ± 5.36 | 3.88 ± 5.35 | .12 |
| Alcoholic drinks/week post-COVID, mean (SD) | 2.99 ± 4.65 | 4.24 ± 5.26 | 3.28 ± 5.03 | <.0001 |
| Financial insecurity pre-COVID | 66 (30.00%) | 92 (13.31%) | 806 (18.58%) | <.0001 |
| Financial insecurity post-COVID (only those with pre-COVID data) | 60 (28.44%) | 72 (11.06%) | 577 (16.09%) | <.0001 |
| Financial insecurity post-COVID | 149 (32.68%) | 131 (13.72%) | 1382 (20.64%) | <.0001 |
| Anxiety (GAD-7) pre-COVID, mean (SD) | 5.83 ± 4.69 | 3.51 ± 3.50 | 4.40 ± 4.41 | <.0001 |
| Anxiety (GAD-7) post-COVID (only those with pre-COVID data), mean (SD) | 5.41 ± 4.82 | 3.19 ± 3.57 | 3.94 ± 4.34 | <.0001 |
| Anxiety (GAD-7) post-COVID, mean (SD) | 5.04 ± 4.66 | 3.08 ± 3.60 | 4.18 ± 4.53 | <.0001 |
| Depression (PHQ-9) pre-COVID, mean (SD) | 6.27 ± 4.72 | 3.61 ± 3.56 | 4.56 ± 4.47 | <.0001 |
| Depression (PHQ-9) post-COVID (only those with pre-COVID data), mean (SD) | 6.36 ± 5.13 | 3.50 ± 3.79 | 4.43 ± 4.58 | <.0001 |
| Depression (PHQ-9) post-COVID, mean (SD) | 5.85 ± 4.91 | 3.31 ± 3.74 | 4.71 ± 4.85 | <.0001 |
| Hypertension | 146 (30.67%) | 270 (26.89%) | 2954 (26.01%) | .11 |
| Diabetes | 40 (8.40%) | 68 (6.77%) | 850 (7.48%) | .23 |
| Coronary artery disease | 28 (5.88%) | 32 (3.19%) | 452 (3.98%) | .05 |
| Heart failure | 6 (1.26%) | 10 (1.00%) | 126 (1.11%) | .75 |
| Stroke or TIA | 14 (2.94%) | 20 (1.99%) | 236 (2.08%) | .002 |
| Atrial fibrillation | 29 (6.09%) | 41 (4.08%) | 424 (3.73%) | .06 |
| Obstructive sleep apnea | 85 (17.86%) | 124 (12.35%) | 1474 (12.98%) | .005 |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 27 (5.67%) | 15 (1.49%) | 275 (2.42%) | <.0001 |
| Asthma | 68 (14.29%) | 85 (8.47%) | 1237 (10.89%) | .0009 |
| Cancer | 28 (5.88%) | 74 (7.37%) | 544 (4.79%) | .48 |
| Immunodeficiency | 29 (6.09%) | 20 (1.99%) | 396 (3.49%) | .0002 |
| HIV | 4 (0.84%) | 5 (0.50%) | 71 (0.63%) | .13 |
| Pregnant | 3 (0.63%) | 8 (0.80%) | 152 (1.34%) | .90 |
| COVID before baseline survey | 237 (49.79%) | 274 (27.29%) | 6432 (54.39%) | <.0001 |
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; COVID, coronavirus disease 2019; GAD, Generalized Anxiety Disorder; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; IQR, interquartile range; PHQ, Patient Health Questionnaire; SD, standard deviation; SES, socioeconomic status; TIA, transient ischemic attack.
NOTES: Baseline and post-COVID characteristics among those with Long COVID symptoms, without Long COVID symptoms, and nonresponders. P values are for univariate unadjusted comparison between those with and without Long COVID symptoms reported on the cross-sectional survey using χ2 tests for categorical variables and t tests for continuous variables.
a
Participants could check all of the above so totals do not add to 100%, and each race/ethnicity was considered separately rather than as a single categorical variable.