Table 3.
Multivariable Models of Factors Potentially Associated With Long COVID
| Model 1 N = 1024 | Model 2 N = 1021 | Model 3 N = 905 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable | OR (95% CI) | P Value | OR (95% CI) | P Value | OR (95% CI) | P Value |
| Age | 1.00 (.99– 1.01) | .90 | 1.00 (.99–1.02) | .66 | 1.01 (.99–1.03) | .14 |
| Wave | ||||||
| Initial | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Alpha | 0.44 (.17–1.10) | .08 | .64 (.23–1.77) | .39 | 1.20 (.37–3.90) | .76 |
| Delta | 0.33 (.21–.53) | <.001 | 0.48 (0.22–1.06) | .07 | 0.57 (0.21–1.50) | .25 |
| Omicron | 0.17 (.11–.26) | <.001 | 0.25 (.12–0.54) | <.001 | 0.37 (.15–.90) | .04 |
| Number of initial symptoms (per symptom) | 1.27 (1.20–1.35) | <.001 | 1.27 (1.20–1.35) | <.001 | 1.30 (1.20–1.40) | <.001 |
| Female sex | 1.24 (.88–1.77) | .22 | 1.16 (.80–1.66) | .44 | .86 (.57–1.29) | .47 |
| Myocardial infarction | 0.58 (.27–1.25) | .16 | 0.63 (.29–1.37) | .24 | 0.57 (.23–1.39) | .21 |
| Stroke | 0.82 (.30–2.19) | .69 | 0.96 (.34–2.68) | .94 | 1.46 (.47–4.52) | .51 |
| Atrial fibrillation | 0.51 (.26–1.01) | .05 | 0.47 (0.23–0.96) | .04 | 0.61 (.28–1.31) | .20 |
| Sleep apnea | 1.00 (.63–1.58) | .99 | 1.07 (0.67–1.70) | .79 | 1.14 (.68–1.89) | .63 |
| COPD or asthma | 0.79 (.17–3.68) | .76 | 0.87 (.18–4.14) | .86 | 0.89 (.17–4.80) | .89 |
| Immunodeficiency | 0.54 (.27–1.07) | .08 | 0.51 (.25–1.03) | .06 | 0.57 (.26–1.28) | .18 |
| Vaccination before COVID-19 | N/A | N/A | 0.85 (.49–1.49) | .57 | 0.81 (.44–1.49) | .50 |
| Vaccination after COVID-19 | N/A | N/A | 1.41 (.65–3.06) | .39 | 1.57 (.60–4.13) | .36 |
| Hispanic ethnicity | N/A | N/A | 1.70 (1.02–2.83) | .04 | 1.73 (.95–3.14) | .07 |
| Subjective socioeconomic status (per unit higher) | N/A | N/A | 0.81 (.73–.91) | <.001 | 0.90 (.79–1.03) | .12 |
| Highest education | N/A | N/A | ||||
| No high school | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| High school graduate | N/A | N/A | 0.72 (.12–4.40) | .72 | 0.69 (0.08–6.03) | .74 |
| College degree | N/A | N/A | 0.84 (.22–3.25) | .80 | 1.17 (.23–5.97) | .85 |
| Graduate degree | N/A | N/A | 0.73 (.19–2.86) | .65 | .99 (.19–5.12) | .99 |
| Other | N/A | N/A | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| Healthcare worker | N/A | N/A | 1.02 (.98–1.06) | .28 | 1.02 (.98–1.07) | .25 |
| Pre-COVID-19 Depressive symptoms | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1.08 (1.01–1.16) | .03 |
| Pre-COVID-19 anxiety symptoms | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1.04 (.97–1.12) | .25 |
| Pre-COVID-19 financial insecurity | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1.64 (1.02–2.63) | .04 |
Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; COVID, coronavirus disease 2019; N/A, not applicable; OR, odds ratio.
Model 1 includes age, COVID-19 wave, number of initial symptoms, sex, myocardial infarction, stroke, atrial fibrillation, sleep apnea, COPD or asthma, and immunodeficiency.
Model 2 includes Model 1 factors, plus receipt of COVID-19 vaccination before or after COVID-19 diagnosis, ethnicity, subjective socioeconomic status, highest level of education, and primary employment.
Model 3 includes Model 2 factors, plus pre-COVID-19 depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and financial insecurity.