Table 1.
187List of CFNs-containing biomaterial inks for different tissue engineering applications
| CFNs and dimensions | CFNs-containing biomaterial ink | Bioprinters, crosslinking mechanisms, and scaffold’s dimensions | In vitro | Biological outcomes/tissue engineering application | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| GO (synthesized by the Hummers' method; single layer sheet with a height of 1 nm) | 3D-PPF-Amine, 3D-PPF-Amine-BR 3D-PPF-Amine-GO, 3D-PPF-Amine-GO®BP | PBB (VIPER si2 Stereolithography System, Valencia, CA) Photoinitiation by BAPO Orthogonal cubic lattice disks: 5 mm × 5 mm × 5 mm (L × W × H) |
MC3T3 mouse pre-osteoblast cells (30 × 103 cells/well) | 3D-PPF-Amine-GO and 3D-PPF-Amine-GO@BP promoted significant cell proliferation and osteogenesis compared to 3D-PPF-Amine and 3D-PPF-Amine-BP. Bone tissue engineering |
[94] |
| Few-layered GO (Hummers' method; LT = 0.71 nm, LS = 1 μm) | ACG, ACG/GO0.1, and ACG/GO1 | EBB (Fourth Generation 3D Bioplotter, Envision- TEC, Germany) Ca2+ ionic cross linkage, thermal transition, and photoinitiation by Irgacure 2959 Printed scaffold discs: 30 × 30 × 1 mm3 (L × W × H) |
hADMSCs (9.4 × 104 cells/scaffold) | ACG/GO0.1 demonstrated greater cytocompatibility and hADMSCs differentiation. Cartilage tissue engineering |
[95] |
| SWCNTs (Carbon Solution, Riverside, CA, USA) | NFC/alginate and NFC/alginate - 10% and 20% SWCNTs | EBB (INKREDIBLE + Bioplotter, Cellink AB, Sweden) Ca2+ ionic interaction Brain-slice-like construct |
SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells | The 10% CNTs construct had many viable cells, whereas the more conductive 20% CNTs scaffold had no attached living cells. RT-qPCR analysis showed that the 10% CNTs expressed a significant level of mature neuron marker TUBB3, compared to NFC/alginate after 10 days of incubation. Neural tissue engineering |
[96] |
| MWCNTs (D = 10–20 nm; L = 5–50 μm) | ABT, ABT-CNT3 (0.098 g), ABT-CNT7.5 (0.244 g), and ABT-CNT10 (0.325 g) | EBB (in-house built at SeoulTech, Korea) Tannic acid and Ca2+ interaction, and NaIO4 oxidation Disk-shaped construct (diameter = 0.5 cm; thickness = 0.2 cm) |
hMSCs (0.01 × 106 cells/well) | All the scaffolds showed cytocompatibility with hMSCs cells up to 28 days of investigation. Soft wearable bioelectronics and tissue engineering |
[97] |
| MWCNTs (D = 80 nm; L = 10 μm) (Sigma Aldrich, USA) | PIC and PIC/MWCNTs | EBP hotoinitiation by 2-oxoglutaric acid Printed construct: 5 mm × 5 mm × 5 mm |
rBMSCs (5 × 105 cells/well) | PIC/MWCNTs demonstrated good biocompatibility with rBMSCs (days 3, 5, and 7) and favored mineralized matrix formation as well as osteogenesis-related gene upregulation (days 14 and 17), showing a significant difference compared with PIC. | [98] |
| 8-week-old male; 3 groups, calvarial defect model of Sprague-Dawley rats | PIC/MWCNTs promoted neovascularization and bone formation. Bone tissue engineering |
||||
| 188Amine functionalized MWCNTs (purchased from Cheap Tubes Inc.; outer diameter = 15-37 nm; L = 1-1,000 nm) | PEGDA and PEGDA-MWCNTs (MWCNTs: 0.02, 0.05, and 0.1 wt%) | PBB (Printrbot® rapid prototyping) Ultrasonication (20 KHz, 1 hour) Circular disks (diameter =10 mm) | NSCs (30 × 103 cells/ well) | PEGDA-MWCNTs (0.1 wt%) enhanced neural stem cell proliferation and early neuronal differentiation compared to other composites after 7 days of culture. Nerve tissue regeneration |
[99] |
| CNTs (obtained from the Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences) | Gel-SA and Gel-SA-CNTs (CNTs: 0.5 and 1%, w/v) (Gel-SA-gelatin-sodium alginate) |
EBB (Regenovo Bio-Architect Pro, China) Ca2+ ionic cross linkage Tubular scaffold (inner diameter = 3.0 mm, outer diameter = 4.0 mm, length = 7–10 cm, wall thickness = 0.5 mm) |
BALB/c skin fibroblasts (4 × 105 cells/mL) | Gel-SA and Gel-SA-CNTs (0.5%) had good cell viability and cell adhesion rate compared to Gel-SA-CNTs (1%). Vascular tissue engineering |
[100] |
| ssDNA@CNTs (2-10 nm) (Sigma Aldrich, Milwaukee, WI) | 3D-PPF, 3D-PPF-ssDNA, 3D-PPF-CNT, and 3D-PPF-ssD-NA<®CNTs (CNTs: 0.5 mg/mL) | PBB (VIPER si2 Stereolithography System, Valencia, CA) Photoinitiation by BAPO Orthogonal cubic-lattice disks: 5 mm × 5 mm × 5 mm (W × L × H) |
MC3T3 cells (40 × 103 cells/well) | 3D-PPF-ssDNA@CNTs significantly improved cell adhesion and cell spreading under electric stimulation compared to other scaffolds. Bone tissue engineering |
[101] |
| CNFs (D = 100 nm; L = 20–200 μm) (Sigma-Aldrich, Ireland) | Alg-Gel-CNFs (CNFs: 0, 0.5, 1, 2, and 5% w/v) (Alg-Gel-alginate-gelatin) | EBB (Allevi 2 Printer, USA) Ca2+ ionic cross linkage Circular disks (height = 4 mm; width = 9 mm) |
NIH-3T3 mouse embryonic fibroblasts (0.04 × 106 cells/ construct) | The presence of the CNFs in hydrogels did not trigger any cytotoxic effect on cultured cells for 96 hours. Meanwhile, CNFs did not significantly affect the proliferation rate of cells. Cardiac or neuronal tissue engineering |
[102] |
| Carbonaceous material (CM) derived from algae-based biomass (prepared by the hydrothermal carbonization method, surface area 24.19 m2/g) | PCL, CM-03/PCL, and CM-03K/PCL | EBB (Bioplotter Starter Series, EnvisionTEC) Simple dissolution in dichloromethane Printed scaffold (15 mm × 5 mm × 0.5 mm) 15 mm × 5 mm × 0.5 mm (L × W × H) |
C2C12 mouse myoblasts (l × 105 cells/scaffold) | The CM-03/PCL scaffolds significantly enhanced myotube formation and myotube maturity after electrical stimulation compared to PCL and CM-03K/PCL groups. Skeletal muscle engineering |
[103] |
Abbreviations: ABT, Alginate-tannic acid-bovine serum albumin; ACG, methacrylated alginate + methacrylated chondroitin sulfate + methacrylated gelatin; BAPO, bis-acylphosphine oxide; BP, black phosphorous; CNFs, carbon nanofibers; D, diameter; hADMSCs, human adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells; hMSCs, human mesenchymal stem cells; Irgacure 2959, 2-hydroxy-4′-(2-hydroxyethoxy)-2-methylpropiophenone; L × W × H, length × width × height; LS, lateral size; LT, lateral thickness; NaIO4, sodium periodate; NFC, nanofibrillated cellulose; NSCs, neural stem cells; PCL, poly(s-caprolactone); PEGDA-poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate; PIC, polyion complex; PPF, poly(propylene fumarate); rBMSCs, rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells; RT-qPCR, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction; ssDNA, single-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid; TUBB3, tubulin beta 3 class III.