Table 1.
Characteristics of included studies.
| References | Country | Female, % | Age range (year) | Design | Sample size | Cases | Exposure | Effect size (95%CI) | Comparison | ExposureAssessment | Exposure (range of intake) | OutcomeAssessment | Follow-up (year) | Adjustments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hintikka et al. (34) | Finland | 55.7 | 25–64 | Cross-sectional | 2,011 | 210 | Coffee Tea |
Tea: 0.47 (0.27–0.83) Coffee: 0.90 (0.54–1. 50) | Daily (≥5 cups/day) vs. Not daily | Questionnaire | 0–≥5 cups/day | 21-item BDI | 1998–2005 | Age, sex, current daily smoking, alcohol consumption patterns, marital status, employment status, length of basic education, having vocational training, economic hardship and poor subjective health, frequency of eating lake fish, sea fish, fresh vegetables, boiled vegetables, and fruits and use of multivitamin pills and fish oil capsules |
| Kendler et al. (35) | Virginia | 51.8 | 37.9 | Cross-sectional | 3706 | NA | Caffeine | 1.79 (1. 47–2.17) | At least several days per week vs. ≥625 mg of caffeine per day | Interview | 0–>650 mg/day | DSM-III-R criteria | 1995–1997 | Age, gender |
| Niu et al. (36) | Japan | 57.3 607 women | >70 | Cross-sectional | 1,058 | 361 | Coffee Green tea Black or oolong tea: |
Coffee: 0.82 (0.53– 1.27 Green tea: 0.56 (0.39– 0.81) Black or oolong tea: <1 cup/d: 0.82 (0.56– 1.20) ≥1 cups/d: 0.71 (0.49, 1.02) | NA | Questionnaire | Coffee: Almost never–≥1 cups/d Tea: ≤1–≥4 cups/d |
30-item GDS | 2002–2009 | Age, sex, BMI, hypertension, diabetes, history of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, or arthritis, high C-reactive protein, smoking and drinking habits, physical activity, cognitive status, impaired instrumental activities of daily living, body pain, education, living alone, marital status, serum albumin concentration, total energy intake, intakes per 2,000 kcal of energy intake as protein and folate, tea consumption (for coffee analysis), coffee consumption (for tea analysis), perceived social support, visiting friends |
| Ruusunen et al. (37) | Finland | 0 | 42–60 | Prospective cohort | 2,232 | 49 | Coffee Tea Caffeine |
Coffee 0.25(0.07- 0.91) Tea 1.40 (0/78- 2.51) Caffein 0.85 (0.34–2.15) | Coffee: >813 ml/day vs. never Caffeine: > 781 mg/d |
4d record | Coffee: none->813 ml/d Tea: yes/no Caffeine: >425 mg/d-781 mg/d |
Diagnosed by a physician by ICD criteria ICD-9 | 17/5 years | Age, examination years, socio-economic status, smoking, alcohol consumption, maximal oxygen uptake, BMI, and daily intakes of folate and PUFA |
| Smith (38) | United Kingdom |
57 | 49.6 | Cross-sectional | 3,223 | NA | Caffeine | 0.12 (0.1- 0.2) | >250 mg/day | Questionnaire | <140–>260 Mg/d | HADS | NA | NA |
| Chen et al. (39) | China | 100 | 53.7 | Prospective cohort | 1,399 | 363 | Tea | 0.39 (0.19 to 0.84) | >100 g dried tea leaves/ mo. vs. never | Interview | 0 to >100 g dried tea leaves | 20-item CES-D | 2002–2006 | Age at diagnosis, education, income, marital status, exercise, comorbidity, menopausal symptoms, relapse/metastasis, radiotherapy, and quality of life (SF-36 mental health index scale score) |
| Lucas et al. (40) | USA | 100 | 63 | Prospective cohort | 50,739 | 2,067 | Coffee | 0.82 (0.68–0.98) | ≥4 cups/day vs. ≤1 cups/week | FFQ | 0–≥4 cups/day | defined as self-reported physician-diagnosed depression and antidepressant use | 1996–2006 | Age, interval, total energy intake, menopausal hormones use, smoking, BMI, physical activities, marital status, social or community group involvement, self-reported history of diagnosis of diabetes, cancer, myocardial infarction or angina, high blood pressure, MHI score, a minimum latency of exposure of 8 years |
| Feng et al. (41) | Singapore | NA | 55–93 | Prospective cohort | 1,615 | 73 | Tea | 0.30 (0.11–0.85) | ≥6 cups/day vs. never | Interview | 0–≥6 cups/ day | GDS-15 | 2005–2007 | Age, education, housing type, marital status, physical exercise, social and productive activities summed score, MMSE total score, GDS total score |
| Feng et al. (42) | China | 59.3 | 68.6 | Cross-sectional | 1,368 | 285 | Tea | 0.58 (0.42–0.80) | No or irregular consumption per month–daily consumption | Asking participants | No or irregular consumption per month–daily consumption | 15-item CES-D | June 2010 to July 2011 | Age, education, housing type, marital status, physical exercise, social and productive activities summed score, MMSE total score, GDS total score |
| Pham et al. (43) | Japan | 40% 218 women | 20–68 | Cross-sectional | 537 | 157 | Coffee Green tea Caffeine |
Coffee: 0.61(0.38- 0.98) Green tea: 0.54 (0.29- 1) Caffeine: 0.57 (0.30–1.05) | Coffee: ≥2 cups/day vs. <1 cup/day Caffeine: ≤100 mg/d–>291 Green tea: ≥4 cups/day vs. ≤1 cup/day |
BDHQ | Coffee: <1–≥2 cups/day Caffeine: ≤100 mg/day- >291 mg/day Green tea: ≤1–≥4 cups/ day |
20-item CES-D | 2009–2013 | Age, sex, workplace, cancer, CVD, diabetes or chronic hepatitis, marital & living status, overtime work, BMI, job position, smoking, physical activity, alcohol drinking, n-3 PUFA · red meat · vegetable · fruit · coffee · green tea consumption, serum C-reactive protein concentration, serum folate concentration |
| Tsai et al. (44) | Taiwan | 46.8 | ≥53-year-old | Prospective cohort Cross-sectional | Longitudinal: 2,145 Cross sectional: 4,122 |
Longitudinal: 31/8%= 682 Cross sectional: 36.8%= 1,516 |
Tea | Longitudinal: 0.83 (0.65–1.08) Cross-sectional: 0.63 (0.50–0.79) | ≥3 times/ week vs. ≤2 times/week | Interview | ≤2 to ≥3 times/week | 10-item CES-D | 1999–2007 | Age, sex, level of education, psychological stress, diabetes, heart disease, IADL status, family support, audio acuity |
| Park and Moon (45) | Korea | 59.6% 6,069 Women | 20–97 | Cross-sectional | 10,177 | 425 | Coffee | 0.58 (0.44–0.76) | ≥3 cups/day vs. ≤ 0.14 cups/day | FFQ | 0.14–3 cups/d | Self-reported depression | 2010–2011 | Diseases and stroke, perceived stress level, coffee · green tea · soft drink · vegetable · fruit · blue-backed fish · bean · red meat consumption |
| Omagari et al. (36) | Japan | 13.3 | 41–82 | Cross- sectional | 89 | 15 | Coffee | 0.082 (0.009–0.711) | Coffee: 0–2 vs. ≥3 cups/d | FFQ | 0–≥3 cups/day | HADS | April to September 2013 | Sex, lipids, and n-6 PUFAs, the lipid and carbohydrate energy ratios |
| Guo et al. (46) | USA | 51.5 | 50–71 | Prospective cohort (nested case-control) | 252,612 | 11,311 | Coffee Tea |
Tea: M: 1.21 (0.95–1.53) F:1.01 (0.92–1.32) Coffee M:0.90 (0.80–1.01) F:0.93 (0.84–1.04) | None vs. ≥4 cups per day | FFQ | 0–≥4 Cups/day | self-reported physician-diagnosed depression | 1995–2006 | Age, sex, race, education, marital status, smoking, alcoholic beverage intake, physical activity, BMI, energy intake |
| Ritchie et al. (47) | France | Cross-sectional: 61.3 longitudinal: 56.3 | ≥65 | Cross-sectional longitudinal | Cross-sectional: 8,125 longitudinal: 5,785 |
Cross-sectional: 1,973 longitudinal: 1,076 | Caffeine | Cross-sectional: M: 0.94 (0.76- 1.18) F:0.92 (0.80- 1.06) Longitudinal: M: 0.85 (0.66- 1.08) F: 0.86 (0.74- 1.01) | No comparison | Interview | ≥3 Cups/day (≥3 units of caffeine, each unit = 100 mg 1 cup of coffee = 100 mg 1 cup of tea = 50 mg) |
MINI | NA | Age and center, education, cardiovascular pathologies, hypertension, BMI, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, mobility, baseline depressive symptoms |
| Taher et al. (48) | Tripoli | 68.5 | 38.7 ± 8.5 | Cross-sectional | 200 | 89 | Tea or coffee | 2.48 (1.36–4.54) | Yes/no | Questionnaire | Yes/no | DASS-21 | July to October 2014 | NA |
| Li et al. (49) | China | 51.8 | 70.7 | Cross-sectional | 9,371 | 979 | Tea | Green tea: 0.97 (0.80- 1.18) Black tea: 0.39 (0.23- 0.66) | None vs. ≥3 cups/day | interview based on a self-designed questionnaire | 0–≥3 cups/day | PHQ-9 | NA | Age and gender, race, education level, marital status, living status, income, vegetable intake, fruits intake, red meat intake, fish intake, eggs intake, smoking, alcohol drinking, physical activity, hypertension, diabetes, coronary heart disease, Activities of Daily Living Scale scores and Mini-Mental State Examination scores. |
| Chanda et al. (50) | China | 69.7 | 60–93 | Cross-sectional | 614 | NA | Tea Coffee |
Tea: 0.82 (0.71–0.95) Coffee: 0.86(0.71–1.04) | Drinking coffee or tea for Less or more than 15 years | Interviewer-administered questionnaire | Drinking coffee or tea for Less or more than 15 years | GDS-15 | 2011–2015 | NA |
| Yu et al. (51) | Atlantic Canada | 68.9 | 35–69 | Cross-sectional | 18,838 | 3,217 | Coffee | Male: 1.11(0.85–1.45) Female: 1.38(1.15–1.64) | Never vs. ≥ 4 cups/day | Questionnaire | 0–4 cups of coffee | PHQ-9 | 2009–2013 | Age, ethnicity, education, province of residence, smoking status, alcohol drinking, self-reported cardiovascular disease and diabetes, healthy eating index (in tertiles), total physical activity (in MET-min/week tertiles), and BMI |
| Kim et al. (52) | Korea | 59.7 | ≥19 | Cross-sectional | 9,576 | 1,443 | Green tea Coffee Caffeine |
Green tea: 0.79 (0.63–0.99) Coffee: 0.68 (0.55–0.85) Caffeine: 0.76(0.62–0.92) | Green tea never vs. ≥3 Cups/Week Coffee: never vs. ≥2 cups/day Caffeine: ≤22 mg/day vs. >122.9 mg/day |
FFQ | Green tea: 0–≥3 Cups/Week Coffee: 0–≥2 cups/day Caffeine: ≤22–>122.9 mg/day |
Assessed by some questions | NA | Adjusted for age and sex, BMI, income level, education level, alcohol intake, smoking status, physical activity, intake of energy, vegetable, fruit, red meat, fish, and green tea (or coffee) |
| Navarro et al. (53) | Navara | 60 | 36.4 years | Cohort study | 14,413 | 199 | Coffee | 0.37 (0.15–0.95) | <1 vs. ≥4 cups/day | FFQ | <1–≥4 cups/day | two criteria simultaneously: (a) validated physician-diagnosed depression together with (b) new onset of habitual antidepressant use | 10 years | Adjusted for sex, alcohol intake (linear and quadratic term), years of university education, marital status, smoking, body mass index, total energy intake, adherence to the Mediterranean diet, between-meal snacking and following special diets, leisure-time physical activity (METS-h/week), hours of TV watching, hypertension at baseline, baseline high blood cholesterol, self-perception of competitiveness, anxiety, and psychological dependence, and use of anxiolytics, and stratified for age (decades) and recruitment period |
| Pogoda et al. (54) | USA | 50 | 47.3 | Cross-sectional | 1,342 | 132 | Caffeine | 1.40 (0.63- 3.11) | First vs. forth quartile | 24- h recall | First-forth quartile | PHQ-9 | 2009–2010 | Adjusted for gender, race/ethnicity, smoking status, and use of antidepressants. |
| Iranpour et al. (55) | USA | 52.8 | Aged ≥18 | Cross-sectional | 4,737 | 305 | Caffeine | 0.23 (0.06–0.8) | First vs. forth quartile | Dietary recall | First-forth quartile | PHQ-9 | 2005–2006 | Age, sex, family PIR, education, marital status, disease history, sleep disorders, thyroid problems, physical activity, social support, smoking, total energy, cholesterol, retinol, vitamin A, beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, vitamin B1, iron, and phosphorus levels |
| Kimura et al. (56) | Japan | 100 | 65–94 | A multi-center cross-sectional study | 1,992 | NA | Coffee Green tea Caffeine |
Coffee: 0.64 (0.46–0.88) Caffeine: 0.75 (0.55–1.02) Green tea: 0.85 (0.62–1.17) | Coffee: 0–3 vs. 107–619 g/1,000 kcal Green tea: 0–99 vs. 320–788 g/1,000 kcal Caffeine: 0–119.2 vs. 234.9–758 mg/1,000 kcal |
BDHQ | Coffee: 0–619 g/1,000 kcal green tea: 0–788 g/1,000 kcal) caffeine: 0–758 mg/1,000 kcal |
CES-D | 2011–2012 | Adjusted for age, residential block, living status(alone or not alone), current smoking (yes or no), alcohol drinking (yes or no), marital status(married or nit married), physical activity level (total metabolic equivalents-hour/day: METs), size of residential area (city with a population ≥1 million, a city with a population, BMI and education(junior high school, high school, junior college, and university and higher), EPA+DHA intake (mg/1000 kcal), folate intake(mcg/1000 kcal) dietary supplement (yes/no) |
| Ángeles Pérez-Ara et al. (57) | Netherlands, United Kingdom, Germany, and Spain | 75.3 | 18–75 | Cross-sectional | 941 | 312 | Coffee Tea |
Coffee: 1.00 (0.60–1.65) Tea: 1.10 (0.63–1.92) | Coffee: <1 cup/d vs. > 3 cups/d Tea: <1 cup/d vs. > 3 cups/d |
FFQ | <1 cup/d–>3 cups/d | 30-item self-administered questionnaire | September 2015 and October 2016. | Adjusted for the site, age, gender, marital status, level of education, BMI, MooDFOOD diet score, smoking, alcohol use, physical activity, high blood pressure, diabetes, and stomach or intestinal ulcer |
| Ng et al. (58) | Singapore | NA | Mean age 67 years | Prospective cohort study | 3,177 | 57 | Tea | 0.34 (0.13- 0.90) | None or <1 cup/d vs. ≥3 cups/d | Reported habitual intake of common tea types using indigenous references | None–≥3 cups/d | GDS-15 | Four years | Age, sex, ethnicity, education, housing type, single/divorced/widowed, living alone, physical and social activity, smoking, alcohol, number of comorbidities, MMSE, and baseline GDS level |
| Kromhout et al. (59) | Netherlands | 59 | 82 years +9 | Cross-sectional | 206 | 145 | Caffeine | 0.6 (0.2–2.1) | High vs. low | Cups of coffee, tea, and cola consumed were observed and recorded six times a day. | Low-normal-high | MDS-DRS | NA | Age, gender, and stage of cognitive decline together with any of the following variables that were significantly related to the specific outcome (the use of psychotropic medication, marital status, Barthel Index total score, the presence of pain, cohort, and kidney function) |
| Safarini et al. (60) | Palestine | 61.2 | NA | Cross-sectional | 1,051 | 598 | Caffeine | Coffee: 0.573 (0.261–1.255) Tea: 0.567 (0.270–1.189) | NA | Questionnaire | NA | BDI-II | October 2020 and January 2021 | Study year, gender, and academic field |
| Yao et al. (61) | China | 54.2% | 83.7 | Cross-sectional | 13,115 | NA | Green tea | 0.85 (0.76–0.95) | Never or <1 cup/month vs. ≥1 Cup/daily | Self-reported | Never or <1 cup/month <1 cup/day but ≥1 Cup/month ≥1 Cup/daily |
CES-D-10 | NA | The demographic factors included age and sex. Socioeconomic conditions included education, socioeconomic status, rural residence, and geographical regions. Family/social support included marital status and living arrangements. Health behaviors included social and leisure activity index, smoking, alcohol drinking, BMI (as a proxy for unhealthy behaviors), and regular dietary (vegetable/fruit/fish/nut) intake. Health status were measured by self-rated health, of 13 cognitive impairment, medical illness, comorbidity, and disability in activities of daily living (ADL) |
BMI, Body Mass Index; BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; GDS, Geriatric Depression Scale; CES-D, Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale; PHQ-9, Patient Health Questionnaire; HADS, Hospital Anxiety and Depression scale; DASS, Depression Anxiety Stress Scale; MDS-DRS, Minimum Data Set-based Depression Rating Scale; MINI, Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview; ICD, International Classification of Diseases; DSM, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; FFQ, Food Frequency Questionnaire; BDHQ, Brief Dietary History Questionnaire.