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. 2023 Jan 18;26(3):105982. doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.105982

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© 2023.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

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Impacts on upstream industries

Different battery configurations affect the corresponding upstream industries, depending on the availability of key materials and geological resources.

(A) Abundance of elements used in battery chemistry on Earth.

(B) Average prices of corresponding critical metals from 2010 to 2021.

(C) Annual global production and cost of Lithium Carbonate (Li2CO3) and Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3), indicating the advantages of Na-ion batteries and anode-free Na metal batteries.

(D) As the most common choice, Cu foil, and Al foil are used as positive and negative current collectors, whereas anode-free Na metal batteries use Al foil on both sides. The price of battery-grade Al foil is much lower than that of copper foil.