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. 2023 Feb 24;1(5):346–360. doi: 10.1038/s44222-023-00032-w

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Fig. 1 — a, Schematic representation of electrochemical biosensors based on different biochemical receptors and detection probes. b, Amperometric biosensing of metabolite targets based on an enzyme electrode, including the current–time (i–t) curve and the i signal for quantification. Voltammetric biosensing of proteins or nucleic acids using an antibody-modified or nucleic acid-modified electrode through multistep sandwich sensing, one-step binding-induced folding sensing or one-step proximity binding-based affinity sensing, including the current–potential (i–E) curve and i signal for target quantification. c, Ion-selective electrodes with three different structures, including recording of the potential (E) for target quantification. d, Two types of organic electrochemical transistor sensors prepared by immobilizing the recognition element on the channel surface or on the gate electrode (G) for sandwich immunoassays of proteins, including recording of the channel current (i_channel) for target quantification. e, Photoelectrochemistry biosensing based on a three-electrode system and a light source, including recording of the photoelectrode photocurrent (i_pc) upon target recognition for quantification. f, Electrochemiluminescence biosensing of cells based on an aptamer-modified electrode through a sandwich-sensing format, including light intensity (I_ECL) at excited potential by a photomultiplier tube (PMT) or imaging using a camera for target quantification. g, Integration of electrochemical biosensors in portable, wearable and implantable devices. CE, counter electrode; D, drain electrode; Med_ox, oxidized form of mediator; Med_red, reduced form of mediator; RE, reference electrode; S, source electrode; WE, working electrode.