Table 9.
Model 1 of Table 4, OLS and Robust regressions with robust standard errors.
| (1) |
(2) |
(3) |
(4) |
(5) |
(6) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dependent variable: Relative growth of ICRG civil disorder index (%) | ||||||
| OLS regression | M regression (95% efficiency) | S regression (28.7% efficiency) | MM regression (85% efficiency) | MM regression (95% efficiency) | MM regression (99% efficiency) | |
| Excess COVID_death | 2.875** | 2.464** | 2.323*** | 1.978* | 2.380* | 2.706** |
| (2.22) | (2.08) | (2.73) | (1.73) | (1.88) | (2.11) | |
| Gov_support | 0.939 | 0.883 | 0.185 | 0.716 | 0.895 | 0.927 |
| (1.33) | (1.31) | (0.36) | (0.98) | (1.26) | (1.31) | |
| Excess COVID_death × Gov_support | −0.126 | −0.121 | −0.040 | −0.102 | −0.124 | −0.126 |
| (-1.38) | (-1.37) | (-0.63) | (-1.08) | (-1.34) | (-1.37) | |
| Inflation | 0.120*** | 0.129*** | 0.158*** | 0.130*** | 0.128*** | 0.123*** |
| (3.58) | (3.88) | (4.94) | (3.88) | (3.89) | (3.72) | |
| Log of GDP per capita | −3.336** | −2.616 | −0.106 | −1.210 | −2.429 | −3.037* |
| (-2.08) | (-1.54) | (-0.06) | (-0.49) | (-1.21) | (-1.77) | |
| Oil_rent | −0.136 | −0.125 | −0.295*** | −0.148 | −0.123 | −0.131 |
| (-1.23) | (-1.06) | (-4.91) | (-1.07) | (-1.04) | (-1.14) | |
| Level of civil disorder in 2020 | −17.98*** | −16.87*** | −22.80*** | −15.35*** | −16.25*** | −17.43*** |
| (-5.34) | (-4.97) | (-3.83) | (-3.83) | (-4.34) | (-4.90) | |
| Africa | 0.813 | 1.553 | −2.290 | 2.800 | 1.938 | 1.129 |
| (0.26) | (0.47) | (-0.55) | (0.79) | (0.56) | (0.35) | |
| Asia | 2.618 | 2.339 | −4.728* | 1.570 | 2.496 | 2.505 |
| (0.60) | (0.58) | (-1.74) | (0.32) | (0.59) | (0.58) | |
| Europe | 3.398 | 4.025 | −6.850 | 3.727 | 4.494 | 3.784 |
| (0.68) | (0.83) | (-1.51) | (0.57) | (0.90) | (0.76) | |
| North America | 0.123 | −0.278 | −11.85*** | −2.200 | 0.00426 | 0.121 |
| (0.03) | (-0.06) | (-2.79) | (-0.33) | (0.00) | (0.03) | |
| South America | 7.724 | 5.520 | −2.743 | 2.322 | 4.255 | 6.517 |
| (1.43) | (1.13) | (-0.64) | (0.49) | (0.84) | (1.19) | |
| Constant | 52.13** | 45.04** | 42.56 | 31.60 | 42.13* | 48.91** |
| (2.62) | (2.28) | (1.55) | (1.31) | (1.89) | (2.38) | |
| R-squared | 0.32 | 0.27 | 0.2 | 0.24 | 0.26 | 0.29 |
| Number of countries | 110 | 110 | 110 | 110 | 110 | 110 |
| Breakdown point | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | ||
| Hausman test of S against OLS (p-value) | 0.03 | |||||
| Hausman test of MM against S (p-value) | 0.804 | 0.395 | 0.119 | |||
The t-statistics reported in parentheses are calculated using robust standard errors. The asterisks indicate the level of statistical significance: * indicates p < 0.10, ** indicates p < 0.05, and *** indicates p < 0.01.