Table 2.
Hazard Ratios (HRs) of the association between total, dietary, and supplemental antioxidants intake and lung cancer incidence by quartiles of intake.
| Nutrients | Range | Mean | Cohort | Cases | Incidence Rate (95% CI) a | Age-Adjusted HR (95% CI), p-Value | Multi-Adjusted HR (95% CI), p-Value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total β-carotene (mcg/day) | ||||||||
| Q1 | <2278.77 | 1556.37 | 24,614 | 516 | 0.052 (0.047–0.056) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥2278.77 to <3504.26 | 2864.17 | 24,616 | 455 | 0.045 (0.041–0.050) | 0.86 (0.76–0.97), p = 0.017 | 0.98 (0.86–1.11), p = 0.761 | |
| Q3 | ≥3504.26 to <5665.90 | 4422.85 | 24,609 | 374 | 0.037 (0.034–0.041) | 0.70 (0.61–0.80), p = 1.04 × 10−7 | 0.86 (0.75–0.99), p = 0.039 | |
| Q4 | ≥5665.90 | 9775.35 | 24,612 | 297 | 0.030 (0.027–0.033) | 0.55 (0.48–0.63), p < 2 × 10−16 | 0.69 (0.59–0.80), p = 1.36 × 10−6 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend < 2 × 10−16 | P for trend = 1.75 × 10−7 | ||||||
| Dietary β-carotene | ||||||||
| Q1 | <1634.06 | 1137.74 | 24,613 | 547 | 0.055 (0.050–0.059) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥1634.06 to <2654.56 | 2119.15 | 24,613 | 426 | 0.043 (0.039–0.047) | 0.76 (0.67–0.86), p = 2.30 × 10−5 | 0.84 (0.74–0.95), p = 0.007 | |
| Q3 | ≥2654.56 to <4428.63 | 3423.88 | 24,612 | 379 | 0.038 (0.034–0.042) | 0.67 (0.58- 0.76), p = 1.17 × 10−9 | 0.79 (0.69–0.91), p = 0.001 | |
| Q4 | ≥4428.63 | 7527.37 | 24,613 | 290 | 0.029 (0.026–0.033) | 0.51 (0.44–0.59), p ≤ 2 × 10−16 | 0.62 (0.53–0.72), p = 1.03 × 10−9 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend < 2 × 10−16 | P for trend = 3.79 × 10−9 | ||||||
| β-carotene supplements | ||||||||
| No | 0 | 0 | 37,113 | 651 | 0.065 (0.060–0.070) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Yes | ≤2700 | 294.93 | 61,338 | 991 | 0.099 (0.093–0.105) | 0.93 (0.84–1.02), p = 0.125 | 1.04 (0.94–1.15), p = 0.453 | |
| Total vitamin A (IU/day) | ||||||||
| Q1 | <7422.5 | 4991.567 | 24,613 | 490 | 0.049 (0.045–0.054) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥7422.5 to <10,810.0 | 9139.481 | 24,616 | 475 | 0.048 (0.043–0.052) | 0.94 (0.83–1.07), p = 0.378 | 1.05 (0.92–1.19), p = 0.450 | |
| Q3 | ≥10,810.0 to <15,489.5 | 12,873.09 | 24,609 | 375 | 0.037 (0.034–0.041) | 0.73 (0.64–0.84), p = 4.58 × 10−6 | 0.86 (0.74–0.98), p = 0.029 | |
| Q4 | ≥15,489.5 | 22,986.43 | 24,613 | 302 | 0.030 (0.027–0.034) | 0.58 (0.51–0.67), p = 2.23 × 10−13 | 0.72 (0.61–0.84), p = 2.28 × 10−5 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend = 9.16 × 10−16 | P for trend = 1.60 × 10−6 | ||||||
| Dietary vitamin A | ||||||||
| Q1 | <4993.5 | 3652.943 | 24,615 | 518 | 0.052 (0.048–0.056) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥4993.5 to <7513.7 | 6212.687 | 24,612 | 446 | 0.045 (0.041–0.049) | 0.83 (0.73–0.94), p = 0.004 | 0.85 (0.75–0.97), p = 0.0155 | |
| Q3 | ≥7513.7 to <11,610.5 | 9303.387 | 24,612 | 375 | 0.038 (0.034–0.041) | 0.68 (0.60–0.78), p = 2.21 × 10−8 | 0.75 (0.65–0.87), p = 0.0001 | |
| Q4 | ≥11,610.5 | 18,619.62 | 24,612 | 303 | 0.030 (0.027–0.034) | 0.55 (0.48–0.64), p < 2 × 10−16 | 0.63 (0.54–0.74), p = 1.73 × 10−8 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend <2 × 10−16 | P for trend = 2.88 × 10−8 | ||||||
| Vitamin A supplements | ||||||||
| No | 0 | 0 | 37,183 | 653 | 0.065 (0.060–0.071) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Yes | ≤30,000 | 4901.844 | 61,268 | 989 | 0.099 (0.093–0.105) | 0.93 (0.84–1.02), p = 0.124 | 1.03 (0.93–1.14), p = 0.578 | |
| Total vitamin C (mg/day) | ||||||||
| Q1 | <127.85 | 85.368 | 24,613 | 536 | 0.054 (0.049–0.058) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥127.85 to <210.22 | 165.918 | 24,615 | 364 | 0.036 (0.033–0.040) | 0.65 (0.57–0.74), p = 1.40 × 10−10 | 0.82 (0.71–0.93), p = 0.003 | |
| Q3 | ≥210.22 to <563.31 | 328.331 | 24,610 | 358 | 0.036 (0.032–0.040) | 0.64 (0.56–0.73), p = 3.44 × 10−11 | 0.81 (0.70–0.93), p = 0.003 | |
| Q4 | ≥563.31 | 925.296 | 24,613 | 384 | 0.038 (0.035–0.042) | 0.67 (0.59–0.76), p = 2.03 × 10−9 | 0.82 (0.72–0.94), p = 0.005 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend = 0.0001 | P for trend = 0.0625 | ||||||
| Dietary vitamin C | ||||||||
| Q1 | <80.03 | 56.195 | 24,616 | 558 | 0.056 (0.051–0.061) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥80.03 to <120.77 | 100.178 | 24,614 | 393 | 0.039 (0.036–0.043) | 0.67 (0.59–0.76), p = 8.22 × 10−10 | 0.81 (0.71–0.92), p = 0.001 | |
| Q3 | ≥120.77 to <171.92 | 144.357 | 24,614 | 342 | 0.034 (0.031–0.038) | 0.56 (0.49–0.64), p < 2 × 10−16 | 0.72 (0.62–0.82), p = 2.98 × 10−6 | |
| Q4 | ≥171.92 | 251.426 | 24,607 | 349 | 0.035 (0.031–0.039) | 0.58 (0.50–0.66), p = 6.34 × 10−16 | 0.73 (0.63–0.85), p = 4.43 × 10−5 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend = 2.84 × 10−15 | P for trend = 4.04 × 10−5 | ||||||
| Vitamin C supplements | ||||||||
| No | 0 | 0 | 26,670 | 506 | 0.051 (0.046–0.055) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Yes | ≤2102.86 | 326.698 | 71,781 | 1136 | 0.114 (0.107–0.120) | 0.83 (0.75–0.93), p = 0.0007 | 0.98 (0.88–1.09), p = 0.656 | |
| Total vitamin E (mg/day) | ||||||||
| Q1 | <13.23 | 7.452 | 24,614 | 465 | 0.046 (0.042–0.051) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥13.23 to <34.42 | 24.914 | 24,613 | 452 | 0.045 (0.041–0.050) | 0.97 (0.86–1.11), p = 0.685 | 1.07 (0.93–1.21), p = 0.348 | |
| Q3 | ≥34.42 to <291.94 | 189.001 | 24,612 | 342 | 0.034 (0.031–0.038) | 0.71 (0.62–0.81), p = 1.23 × 10−6 | 0.83 (0.72–0.96), p = 0.012 | |
| Q4 | ≥291.94 | 387.723 | 24,612 | 383 | 0.038 (0.035–0.042) | 0.79 (0.69–0.91), p = 0.0007 | 0.89 (0.78–1.02), p = 0.103 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend = 5.81 × 10−7 | P for trend = 0.0016 | ||||||
| Dietary vitamin E | ||||||||
| Q1 | <4.971 | 3.768 | 24,644 | 477 | 0.048 (0.044–0.052) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥4.971 to <6.901 | 5.924 | 24,613 | 391 | 0.039 (0.035–0.043) | 0.83 (0.73–0.95), p = 0.007 | 0.82 (0.71–0.92), p = 0.006 | |
| Q3 | ≥6.901 to <9.591 | 8.119 | 24,582 | 399 | 0.040 (0.036–0.044) | 0.86 (0.75–0.98), p = 0.028 | 0.82 (0.62–0.82), p = 0.008 | |
| Q4 | ≥9.591 | 13.531 | 24,612 | 375 | 0.038 (0.034–0.041) | 0.84 (0.73–0.96), p = 0.009 | 0.72 (0.63–0.85), p = 0.0005 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend = 0.031 | P for trend = 0.0017 | ||||||
| Vitamin E supplements | ||||||||
| No | 0 | 0 | 25,133 | 490 | 0.049 (0.045–0.054) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Yes | ≤ 690.1 | 192.445 | 73,318 | 1152 | 0.115 (0.109–0.122) | 0.79 (0.71–0.88), p = 1.17 × 10−5 | 0.91 (0.82–1.02), p = 0.097 | |
| Total magnesium (mg/day) | ||||||||
| Q1 | <273.73 | 213.779 | 24,615 | 397 | 0.040 (0.036–0.044) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥273.73 to <354.16 | 314.646 | 24,612 | 392 | 0.039 (0.036–0.043) | 0.98 (0.86–1.13), p = 0.824 | 0.95 (0.82–1.10), p = 0.477 | |
| Q3 | ≥354.16 to <446.29 | 397.172 | 24,612 | 418 | 0.042 (0.038–0.046) | 1.04 (0.91–1.20), p = 0.547 | 0.97 (0.83–1.12), p = 0.657 | |
| Q4 | ≥446.29 | 554.459 | 24,612 | 435 | 0.044 (0.040–0.048) | 1.12 (0.97–1.28), p = 0.112 | 0.92 (0.77–1.10), p = 0.369 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend = 0.0684 | P for trend = 0.4266 | ||||||
| Dietary magnesium | ||||||||
| Q1 | <233.03 | 183.725 | 24,616 | 389 | 0.039 (0.035–0.043) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥233.03 to <303.16 | 268.121 | 24,610 | 388 | 0.039 (0.035–0.043) | 0.98 (0.85–1.13), p = 0.822 | 0.94 (0.81–1.08), p = 0.371 | |
| Q3 | ≥303.16 to <389.11 | 342.821 | 24,613 | 404 | 0.040 (0.037–0.045) | 1.03 (0.89–1.18), p = 0.724 | 0.90 (0.77–1.05), p = 0.187 | |
| Q4 | ≥389.11 | 495.427 | 24,612 | 461 | 0.046 (0.042–0.051) | 1.21 (1.05–1.38), p = 0.007 | 0.94 (0.77–1.14), p = 0.546 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend = 0.0025 | P for trend = 0.5619 | ||||||
| Magnesium supplements | ||||||||
| No | 0 | 0 | 45,192 | 806 | 0.081 (0.075–0.086) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Yes | ≤100 | 87.787 | 53,259 | 836 | 0.084 (0.078–0.089) | 0.89 (0.81–0.98), p = 0.021 | 1.00 (0.90–1.10), p = 0.933 | |
| Total selenium (mcg/day) | ||||||||
| Q1 | <59.57 | 45.411 | 24,621 | 416 | 0.042 (0.038–0.046) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥59.57 to <81.65 | 70.528 | 24,612 | 383 | 0.038 (0.035–0.042) | 0.93 (0.81–1.07), p = 0.336 | 0.88 (0.76–1.02), p = 0.079 | |
| Q3 | ≥81.65 to <110.78 | 94.956 | 24,613 | 401 | 0.040 (0.036–0.044) | 1.00 (0.87–1.15), p = 0.972 | 0.86 (0.73–1.00), p = 0.054 | |
| Q4 | ≥110.78 | 147.879 | 24,605 | 442 | 0.044 (0.040–0.049) | 1.16 (1.01–1.33), p = 0.031 | 0.84 (0.68–1.03), p = 0.093 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend = 0.0086 | P for trend = 0.1306 | ||||||
| Dietary selenium | ||||||||
| Q1 | <58.33 | 44.648 | 24,624 | 416 | 0.042 (0.038–0.046) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥58.33 to <79.27 | 68.767 | 24,611 | 379 | 0.038 (0.034–0.042) | 0.92 (0.80–1.06), p = 0.263 | 0.86 (0.74–0.99), p = 0.037 | |
| Q3 | ≥79.27 to <106.76 | 91.811 | 24,605 | 414 | 0.041 (0.038–0.046) | 1.04 (0.91–1.19), p = 0.588 | 0.88 (0.75–1.03), p = 0.105 | |
| Q4 | ≥106.76 | 142.739 | 24,611 | 433 | 0.043 (0.039–0.048) | 1.14 (1.00–1.30), p = 0.059 | 0.75 (0.61–0.93), p = 0.010 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend = 0.0139 | P for trend = 0.0187 | ||||||
| Selenium supplements | ||||||||
| No | 0 | 0 | 92,249 | 1550 | 0.155 (0.147–0.163) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Yes | ≤42.86 | 42.86 | 6202 | 92 | 0.009 (0.008–0.011) | 0.88 (0.71–1.08), p = 0.219 | 0.89 (0.72–1.09), p = 0.263 | |
| Total zinc (mg/day) | ||||||||
| Q1 | <9.95 | 7.012 | 24,616 | 446 | 0.045 (0.041–0.049) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥9.95 to <19.84 | 14.354 | 24,632 | 397 | 0.040 (0.036–0.044) | 0.93 (0.81–1.06), p = 0.265 | 0.89 (0.77–1.02), p = 0.098 | |
| Q3 | ≥19.84 to <25.77 | 22.811 | 24,602 | 395 | 0.040 (0.036–0.044) | 0.90 (0.78–1.03), p = 0.113 | 0.94 (0.82–1.08), p = 0.399 | |
| Q4 | ≥25.77 | 34.401 | 24,601 | 404 | 0.040 (0.037–0.045) | 0.92 (0.81–1.06), p = 0.243 | 0.86 (0.74–1.00), p = 0.053 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend = 0.219 | P for trend = 0.1519 | ||||||
| Dietary zinc | ||||||||
| Q1 | <7.00 | 5.381 | 24,626 | 413 | 0.041 (0.038–0.045) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥7.00 to <9.48 | 8.234 | 24,688 | 398 | 0.040 (0.036–0.044) | 0.97 (0.84–1.11), p = 0.650 | 0.94 (0.81–1.08), p = 0.367 | |
| Q3 | ≥9.48 to <12.90 | 11.016 | 24,528 | 406 | 0.041 (0.037–0.045) | 1.02 (0.89–1.17), p = 0.812 | 0.93 (0.79–1.09), p = 0.351 | |
| Q4 | ≥12.90 | 17.816 | 24,609 | 425 | 0.042 (0.039–0.047) | 1.09 (0.95–1.25), p = 0.204 | 0.82 (0.67–0.99), p = 0.041 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend = 0.119 | P for trend = 0.0430 | ||||||
| Zinc supplements | ||||||||
| No | 0 | 0 | 42,257 | 765 | 0.076 (0.071–0.082) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Yes | ≤ 36.43 | 15.825 | 56,194 | 877 | 0.088 (0.082–0.094) | 0.87 (0.79–0.96), p = 0.004 | 0.96 (0.87–1.06), p = 0.460 | |
| Dietary lycopene (mg/day) | ||||||||
| Q1 | <3108.61 | 2170.982 | 24,613 | 469 | 0.047 (0.043–0.051) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥3108.61 to <4761.09 | 3908.915 | 24,613 | 390 | 0.039 (0.035–0.043) | 0.85 (0.75–0.98), p = 0.0220 | 0.87 (0.76–0.99), p = 0.0408 | |
| Q3 | ≥4761.09 to <7491.66 | 5948.377 | 24,612 | 373 | 0.037 (0.034–0.041) | 0.85 (0.74–0.97), p = 0.0175 | 0.84 (0.73–0.97), p = 0.0157 | |
| Q4 | ≥7491.66 | 13,823.78 | 24,613 | 410 | 0.041 (0.037–0.045) | 0.96 (0.84–1.10), p = 0.5347 | 0.83 (0.71–0.96), p = 0.0144 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend = 0.977 | P for trend = 0.0437 | ||||||
| Dietary lutein and zeaxanthin (mg/day) | ||||||||
| Q1 | <1246.48 | 897.2885 | 24,613 | 511 | 0.051 (0.047–0.056) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥1246.48 to <1906.74 | 1563.793 | 24,613 | 428 | 0.043 (0.039–0.047) | 0.83 (0.73–0.94), p = 0.0042 | 0.95 (0.83–1.08), p = 0.4021 | |
| Q3 | ≥1906.74 to <3002.04 | 2379.873 | 24,612 | 364 | 0.036 (0.033–0.040) | 0.71 (0.62–0.81), p = 4.47 × 10−7 | 0.83 (0.72–0.96), p = 0.0112 | |
| Q4 | ≥3002.04 | 5674.224 | 24,613 | 339 | 0.034 (0.030–0.038) | 0.66 (0.57–0.76), p = 2.84 × 10−9 | 0.78 (0.67–0.91), p = 0.0015 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend = 1.02 × 10−8 | P for trend = 0.0011 | ||||||
| Dietary α-carotene (mg/day) | ||||||||
| Q1 | <295.22 | 193.6037 | 24,615 | 532 | 0.053 (0.049–0.058) | Reference group | Reference group | |
| Q2 | ≥295.22 to <545.47 | 412.4326 | 24,612 | 460 | 0.046 (0.042–0.050) | 0.84 (0.74–0.95), p = 0.0059 | 0.91 (0.80–1.03), p = 0.1321 | |
| Q3 | ≥545.47 to <995.90 | 745.5172 | 24,611 | 365 | 0.037 (0.033–0.040) | 0.64 (0.56–0.74), p = 9.46 × 10−11 | 0.76 (0.66–0.87), p = 9.23 × 10−5 | |
| Q4 | ≥995.90 | 2010.004 | 24,613 | 285 | 0.029 (0.025–0.032) | 0.50 (0.44–0.58), p < 2 × 10−16 | 0.64 (0.55–0.74), p = 1.12 × 10−8 | |
| P for linear trend | P for trend < 2 × 10−16 | P for trend = 4.55 × 10−9 | ||||||
a. Per 10,000 person-years.