Table 1.

Effects of various cells in IPF.

Cells	Function and Mechanism	Effects in Lung Disease	Ref.
AT1	Gas exchange, Ion and liquid transport, Congenital immunity	Compositional gas barrier, Involved in inflammation	[15,16,17]
AT2	Self-renewal and differentiation, Damage repair	Impaired stem cell function, Pro-fibrotic signaling, ER stress, Telomere attrition, Mitochondrial dysfunction, Differentiate into fibroblasts	[31,33,39,40,41,46,47,54,55,56]
Abnormal basaloid cells	Transdifferentiation	Alveolar bronchogenic phenotype	[64,65]
MSC	Self-renewal and differentiation, Damage repair, Immunoregulation	Secreted bioactive molecules, Inhibited fibroblast activation, Inhibited cell apoptosis, Reduced epithelial-mesenchymal transition	[67,68,69,70,71]
Fibroblasts	Tissue repair	ECM deposition, Differentiate into myoblasts, Telomere shortening, Metabolic abnormality, Mitochondrial damage, Resistance to apoptosis, Autophagy, Cellular senescence	[86,87,88,89,92,93,94,95,96,99,100,104,114,115,122,123,126]
Immune Cells	Damage repair, Immunoregulation	Promote the release of inflammatory factors, ECM deposition/Degradation of ECM	[141,142,153,154,157,162,163,164]
ECs	Angiogenesis, Damage repair, Immunoregulation	Anti-inflammation, Inhibited cell apoptosis/Differentiate into fibroblasts	[92,94,166,167]

Abbreviations: AT1, alveolar type I epithelial cells; AT2, alveolar type II epithelial cells; MSC, mesenchymal stem cells; ECs, endothelial cells; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; ECM, extracellular matrix.