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. 2023 Feb 19;13(4):744. doi: 10.3390/ani13040744

Table 1.

Plasma innate immunity and association to environmental and physiological conditions.

Snake Microorganisms Assay Factors Reference
Agkistrodon piscivorus E. coli (G−) Antimicrobial assay using plasma from cottonmouth pregnant relative to non-pregnant females. Pregnancy [23]
A. piscivorus E. coli (G−) Antimicrobial action of the complement system from plasma samples obtained in different seasons. Temperature [21]
Antaresia childreni G−: E. coli Salmonella enterica. Effect of the immune system against the growth of pathogenic G− bacteria in A. childreni eggs under normal environmental conditions of incubation and dehydration. Dehydration [27]
Boa constrictor E. coli (G−) Antibacterial activity of blood plasma from Boa constrictor fasting and fed with mice. Feeding [25]
Crotalus atrox G−: E. coli, S. enterica Bacterial killing assays of plasma to inhibit the growth of G− microorganism. Dehydration [28]
C. durissus E. coli (G−) Effects of temperature (25 °C to 35 °C) on antibacterial activity and variation of corticosterone levels in plasma. Temperature [29]
C. viridis G−: E. coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, S. typhimurium #, Citrobacter freundii, Shigella flexneri, Enterobacter cloacae;
G+: Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus.
The antimicrobial effect of C. viridis’s plasma against the growth of G+ and G− bacteria. Temperature [30]
Liasis fuscus E. coli (G−) Effect of dehydration conditions in adults, measuring osmolality of plasma and response of it against bacteria. Dehydration [31]
Natrix piscator Saccharomyces cerevisae Snake lymphocyte proliferation and phagocytosis against yeasts by snake macrophage. Testosterone [32]
N. piscator S. cerevisae Snake splenocyte proliferation and phagocytosis against yeasts by snake macrophage. Daily and seasonal rhythms [33]
N. piscator S. cerevisae Snake lymphocyte proliferation and phagocytosis against yeasts by snake macrophage. Photoperiod [34]
Panterophis guttatus Not described Hemagglutination on whole sheep blood. Feeding [35]
Sistrurus miliarius Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) extracted from E. coli (G−) Quantification of the metabolic cost in the immune response of pregnant and non-pregnant snakes using LPS. Pregnancy [36]
S. miliarius E. coli (G−) Relationship between environmental factors or the energetic/physiological state of snakes against infections. Climate [37]
Thamnophis elegans E. coli (G−) Comparison of the innate efficiency of the immune system in fast-living and slow-living snakes. Size and age [38]
T. elegans E. coli (G−) Hemolysis and hemagglutination on sheep red blood cells. Ecotype and age [39]
T. elegans E. coli (G−), S. aureus (G+), Candida albicans Realization of a new method for the microbicidal analysis of blood plasma by spectrophotometry. Inter- and intraspecific variation [24]
T. elegans E. coli (G−) The effect of fasting and stress on altered energy use and immune function. Stress, food restriction [40]
T. elegans E. coli (G−) Snake lymphocyte proliferation. Pregnancy [41]
T. elegans E. coli (G−) Snake lymphocyte proliferation. Ecotype and parasitosis [42]
T. elegans E. coli (G−) Interaction of immunological and endocrinological efficiency in inhibiting the growth of G− microorganisms. Corticosterone, temperature, climate [43]
T. elegans E. coli (G−) Effects of annual climate variation on immunity and bactericidal competence. Climate [44]
T. sirtalis E. coli (G−) Hemolysis on sheep red blood cell. Physiology [45]
T. sirtalis E. coli (G−) Effects of annual climate variation on immunity and bactericidal competence. Corticosterone, temperature, climate [43]
T. sirtalis E. coli (G−) Bacterial killing assays of plasma and hemolysis and hemagglutination on sheep red blood cells. Climate [44]
Vipera ammodytes ammodytes Not described Snake leukocyte proliferation, quantity of immune complexes and immunoglobulins. Climate, shedding, hibernation, activity [46]
Vipera berus berus Not described Snake leukocyte proliferation, quantity of immune complexes and immunoglobulins. Climate, shedding, hibernation, activity [46]

Microorganisms, microorganisms sensitive to snake plasma; assay, response of snake immunity cells to induction; factors, factors that influence innate immunity; G−, Gram-negative bacteria; G+, Gram-positive bacteria; # Salmonella enterica serovar typhi.