Table 1.
Plasma innate immunity and association to environmental and physiological conditions.
| Snake | Microorganisms | Assay | Factors | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Agkistrodon piscivorus | E. coli (G−) | Antimicrobial assay using plasma from cottonmouth pregnant relative to non-pregnant females. | Pregnancy | [23] |
| A. piscivorus | E. coli (G−) | Antimicrobial action of the complement system from plasma samples obtained in different seasons. | Temperature | [21] |
| Antaresia childreni | G−: E. coli Salmonella enterica. | Effect of the immune system against the growth of pathogenic G− bacteria in A. childreni eggs under normal environmental conditions of incubation and dehydration. | Dehydration | [27] |
| Boa constrictor | E. coli (G−) | Antibacterial activity of blood plasma from Boa constrictor fasting and fed with mice. | Feeding | [25] |
| Crotalus atrox | G−: E. coli, S. enterica | Bacterial killing assays of plasma to inhibit the growth of G− microorganism. | Dehydration | [28] |
| C. durissus | E. coli (G−) | Effects of temperature (25 °C to 35 °C) on antibacterial activity and variation of corticosterone levels in plasma. | Temperature | [29] |
| C. viridis |
G−: E. coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, S. typhimurium #, Citrobacter freundii, Shigella flexneri, Enterobacter cloacae; G+: Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus. |
The antimicrobial effect of C. viridis’s plasma against the growth of G+ and G− bacteria. | Temperature | [30] |
| Liasis fuscus | E. coli (G−) | Effect of dehydration conditions in adults, measuring osmolality of plasma and response of it against bacteria. | Dehydration | [31] |
| Natrix piscator | Saccharomyces cerevisae | Snake lymphocyte proliferation and phagocytosis against yeasts by snake macrophage. | Testosterone | [32] |
| N. piscator | S. cerevisae | Snake splenocyte proliferation and phagocytosis against yeasts by snake macrophage. | Daily and seasonal rhythms | [33] |
| N. piscator | S. cerevisae | Snake lymphocyte proliferation and phagocytosis against yeasts by snake macrophage. | Photoperiod | [34] |
| Panterophis guttatus | Not described | Hemagglutination on whole sheep blood. | Feeding | [35] |
| Sistrurus miliarius | Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) extracted from E. coli (G−) | Quantification of the metabolic cost in the immune response of pregnant and non-pregnant snakes using LPS. | Pregnancy | [36] |
| S. miliarius | E. coli (G−) | Relationship between environmental factors or the energetic/physiological state of snakes against infections. | Climate | [37] |
| Thamnophis elegans | E. coli (G−) | Comparison of the innate efficiency of the immune system in fast-living and slow-living snakes. | Size and age | [38] |
| T. elegans | E. coli (G−) | Hemolysis and hemagglutination on sheep red blood cells. | Ecotype and age | [39] |
| T. elegans | E. coli (G−), S. aureus (G+), Candida albicans | Realization of a new method for the microbicidal analysis of blood plasma by spectrophotometry. | Inter- and intraspecific variation | [24] |
| T. elegans | E. coli (G−) | The effect of fasting and stress on altered energy use and immune function. | Stress, food restriction | [40] |
| T. elegans | E. coli (G−) | Snake lymphocyte proliferation. | Pregnancy | [41] |
| T. elegans | E. coli (G−) | Snake lymphocyte proliferation. | Ecotype and parasitosis | [42] |
| T. elegans | E. coli (G−) | Interaction of immunological and endocrinological efficiency in inhibiting the growth of G− microorganisms. | Corticosterone, temperature, climate | [43] |
| T. elegans | E. coli (G−) | Effects of annual climate variation on immunity and bactericidal competence. | Climate | [44] |
| T. sirtalis | E. coli (G−) | Hemolysis on sheep red blood cell. | Physiology | [45] |
| T. sirtalis | E. coli (G−) | Effects of annual climate variation on immunity and bactericidal competence. | Corticosterone, temperature, climate | [43] |
| T. sirtalis | E. coli (G−) | Bacterial killing assays of plasma and hemolysis and hemagglutination on sheep red blood cells. | Climate | [44] |
| Vipera ammodytes ammodytes | Not described | Snake leukocyte proliferation, quantity of immune complexes and immunoglobulins. | Climate, shedding, hibernation, activity | [46] |
| Vipera berus berus | Not described | Snake leukocyte proliferation, quantity of immune complexes and immunoglobulins. | Climate, shedding, hibernation, activity | [46] |
Microorganisms, microorganisms sensitive to snake plasma; assay, response of snake immunity cells to induction; factors, factors that influence innate immunity; G−, Gram-negative bacteria; G+, Gram-positive bacteria; # Salmonella enterica serovar typhi.