Table 1.
Studies analyzing the impact of antioxidants on hypertension in animal and human studies.
| Antioxidant | Model/Subject/Study Design | Outcome of Study |
|---|---|---|
| Vitamin C | Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) [151,152]. | Blood pressure (BP) ⬇ [151,152]. |
| High salt-treated SHR [153]. | BP ⬇, endothelium-dependent relaxation ⬆ [153]. | |
| Hypertensive Wistar rats [154]. | BP ⬇ [154]. | |
| Stroke-prone SHR [155]. | BP ⬇ [155]. | |
| Humans, essential hypertension [38,156,157,158]. | Systolic blood pressure (SBP) ⬇, endothelial vasodilation ⬆, arterial stiffness ⬇ [38,156,157,158]. | |
| Humans, mild hypertension [159]. | SBP and diastolic BP (DBP) ⬇ [159]. | |
| Humans, elderly patients with hypertension [160]. | Small ⬇ in BP and antioxidant capacity ⬆ [160]. | |
| Humans, systemic review and meta-analysis [136]. | No consistent benefit for the prevention of CVD (hypertension) [136]. | |
| Humans, long-term risk of hypertension [138]. | No clear beneficial effect [138]. | |
| Humans, hypertension [161,162]. | SBP and mean BP ⬇, endothelial vasodilation ⬆ [161,162]. | |
| Humans, elderly patients, ambulatory BP [163]. | Modest effect on BP [163]. | |
| Humans, systemic review and meta-analysis [164]. | SBP ⬇ [164]. | |
| Vitamin E | SHR, Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats [165,166,167]. | BP ⬇ [165,166,167]. |
| High salt-treated Dahl salt-sensitive (DSS) rats [168]. | No effect on BP [168]. | |
| DSS rat [169]. | BP ⬇ [169]. | |
| Stroke-prone SHR [170]. | BP ⬇ [170]. | |
| Humans, hypertension and cerebral arteriosclerosis [171]. | SBP ⬇ [171]. | |
| Humans, mild essential hypertension [172]. | SBP, DBP and heart rate ⬇ [172]. | |
| Humans, sedentary elderly patients with mild systolic hypertension [173]. | SBP ⬇ [173]. | |
| Vitamin C and E | Stroke-prone SHR [155]. | BP ⬇ [155]. |
| Fructose-induced hypertensive WKY rats [174]. | BP ⬇ [174]. | |
| DOCA-salt-induced hypertensive rats [175]. | SBP ⬇ [175]. | |
| Humans, essential hypertension [157,158]. | SBP, DBP ⬇, endothelial vasodilation ⬆ and arterial stiffness ⬇ [157,158]. | |
| Humans, essential hypertension [176]. | SBP and DBP ⬇ [176]. | |
| Humans, essential hypertension [139]. | No effect on BP [139]. | |
| Polyphenols | ||
| Resveratrol | SHR, WKY rats [177,178]. | BP ⬇ [177,178]. |
| Rats with sucrose-induced hypertension [179]. | BP ⬇ [179]. | |
| Mice with Ang II-induced hypertension [180]. | BP ⬇ [180]. | |
| Fructose-induced hypertensive rats [181]. | BP ⬇ [181]. | |
| Hypertension induced in Wistar rats [182]. | SBP and DBP ⬇ [182]. | |
| Humans, essential hypertension [140]. | No significant change in BP [140]. | |
| Quercetin | Rats with sucrose-induced hypertension [179]. | BP ⬇ [179]. |
| DOCA-salt hypertensive rats [183]. | BP ⬇ [183]. | |
| L-NAME-induced hypertensive Wistar rats [184]. | BP ⬇ [184]. | |
| SHR [185]. | BP and heart rate ⬇ [185]. | |
| Humans, randomized controlled trial [186]. | DBP and mean arterial pressure ⬇ [186]. | |
| Humans, systemic review and meta-analysis [187]. | SBP and DBP ⬇ [187]. | |
| Humans, randomized controlled trial [188,189]. | SBP ⬇ [188,189]. | |
| Apocynin | SHR, WKY rats [190]. | BP ⬇ [190). |
| SHR [191]. | BP and heart rate ⬇ [191]. | |
| Fructose-treated hypertensive Sprague-Dawley rats [192]. | SBP ⬇ [192]. | |
| ANG II-induced hypertension in mice [193]. | SBP ⬇ [193]. | |
| DOCA-induced hypertensive rats [194]. | SBP ⬇ [194]. | |
| Dexamethasone-induced hypertension in SD rats [195]. | DBP ⬇ [195]. | |
| Green Tea | SHR [196]. | BP and heart rate ⬇ [196]. |
| Stroke-prone SHR [197]. | SBP and DBP ⬇ [197]. | |
| Salt-induced hypertensive Wistar rats [102]. | SBP and DBP ⬇ [102]. | |
| Humans, meta-analysis [198]. | SBP and DBP ⬇ [198]. | |
| Humans, systemic review and meta-analysis [199). | SBP and DBP ⬇ [199]. | |
| Humans, systemic review [200]. | SBP and DBP ⬇ [200]. | |
| Humans, systemic review and meta-analysis [201]. | SBP and DBP ⬇ [201]. | |
| (-)-Epicatechin | DOCA-salt hypertensive rats [202,203]. | SBP ⬇ [202,203]. |
| Borderline hypertensive rats [204]. | SBP ⬇ [204]. | |
| Fructose-induced hypertensive SD rats [205]. | SBP ⬇ [205]. | |
| L-NAME-induced hypertensive Wistar rats [206]. | No significant changes in SBP and heart rate [206]. | |
| SHR, WKY rats [207]. | SBP ⬇ [207]. | |
| Humans, meta-analysis [208,209]. | SBP and DBP ⬇ [208,209]. | |
| Humans, randomized controlled trial [210]. | SBP and DBP ⬇ [210]. | |
| Humans, randomized controlled trial [141]. | No significant changes in SBP [141]. | |
| N-acetyl cysteine | SHR [113,114,211,212,213]. | SBP, mean arterial pressure, heart rate ⬇, but not DBP [113,114,211,212,213]. |
| Fructose-treated hypertensive WKY rats [214]. | Attenuated increase in SBP [214]. | |
| Fructose-treated hypertensive SD rats [110]. | Prevented increases in SBP and DBP [110]. | |
| L-NAME-induced hypertensive SD rats [111]. | BP ⬇ [111]. | |
| Salt-induced hypertensive Wistar rats [215]. | No effect on BP [215]. | |
| Salt-induced hypertensive DSS rats [109]. | BP ⬇ [109]. | |
| Humans, essential hypertension [216]. | 24hr and daytime SBP and DBP ⬇ [216]. | |
| α-lipoic acid | Fructose-treated hypertensive WKY rats [217,218]. | Prevented increase in BP [217,218]. |
| SHR [219,220]. | BP ⬇ [219,220]. | |
| Salt-induced hypertensive WKY rats [221]. | Prevented increase in BP [221]. | |
| Salt-induced hypertensive Wistar rats [222]. | BP ⬇ [222]. | |
| High salt-induced hypertensive mice [223,224]. | BP ⬇ [223,224]. | |
| DSS rats [225]. | BP ⬇ [225]. | |
| Glucose-induced hypertensive SD rats [226,227]. | Prevented increase in BP [226,227]. | |
| Glucocorticoid-induced hypertension in SD rats [228]. | Partially ⬇ SBP [228]. | |
| Coenzyme Q10 | SHR [229]. | BP ⬇ in older animals [229]. |
| Stroke-prone SHR [230]. | SBP ⬇ [230]. | |
| Salt-induced hypertensive SD rats [116]. | BP ⬇ [116]. | |
| Humans, essential hypertension [119,120,231,232,233]. | SBP and DBP ⬇ [119,120,231,232,233]. | |
| Humans, hypertension with coronary artery disease [234]. | SBP and DBP ⬇ [234]. | |
| Humans, isolated systolic hypertension [121]. | SBP ⬇ [121]. | |
| Coenzyme Q10 therapy in humans, hypertensive with metabolic syndrome [142]. | No effect on SBP and DBP [142] | |
| Superoxide dismutases | Meta-analysis using SOD mimetic tempol in hypertensive animal models [235]. | BP ⬇ [235]. |
| EC-SOD in MCT-induced hypertensive rats [236]. | Improved right ventricular SBP [236]. | |
| Poly-l-lysine (PLL50)-polyethylene glycol (PEG) CuZn-SOD nanozyme in mice with Ang II-induced hypertension [127]. | BP ⬇ [127]. | |
| Melon SOD in SHR [237]. | BP ⬇ [237]. | |
| Tempol in hypertension of Wistar rats [124]. | SBP ⬇ [124]. | |
| Tempol in fructose-induced hypertensive SD rats [125]. | BP ⬇ [125]. | |
| Tempol in salt-loaded stroke-prone SHR [126]. | SBP ⬇ [126]. | |
| Tempol in advanced-stage stroke-prone SHR [238,239]. | No effect on SBP [238,239]. | |
| TAT-SOD in humans, essential hypertension [240]. | SBP and DBP ⬇ [240]. |
Abbreviations: ANG, angiotensin; BP, blood pressure; DBP, diastolic BP; DOCA, deoxycorticosterone acetate; DSS, Dahl salt-sensitive; EC-SOD, extracellular superoxide dismutase; L-NAME, L-NG-Nitro arginine methyl ester; MCT, monocrotaline; SBP, systolic BP; SD, Sprague-Dawley; SHR, spontaneous hypertensive rats; SOD, superoxide dismutase; WKY rats, Wistar-Kyoto rats. ⬇, decrease/d; ⬆, increase/d.