Table 4.

Summary of clinical trials examining the activity of propolis and its constituents against CKD.

Propolis	Study Design	Dose	Measured Outcome	References
Brazilian green propolis extract	double-blinded randomized placebo-controlled study on CKD patients	500 mg per day for 12 months	Lowered the level of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in urine Arrested proteinuria significantly	[45]
Water-soluble derivative of Croatian propolis	Swiss Albino mice model	50 mg/kg per day for one week	Improved in body weight, immunological and hematological parameters Reduced degree of vacuolization, corpuscular, tubular changes Suppressed diabetic hepatorenal damage	[52]
Chrysin, propolis constituent	STZ/HFD-induced T2DM Wistar albino rat model	40 mg/kg per day for 16 weeks	Lowered the TNF-α expression Inhibited expression of fibronectin, TGF-β and NF-κB	[53]
Brazilian propolis and Chinese propolis	STZ-induced diabetic male Sprague Dawley rats	Group A = 100 mg/kg Chinese propolis and Group B = 100 mg/kg Brazilian propolis twice daily for 8 weeks	Enhancement in oxidative stress level Reversed level of serum alanine, transaminase, aspartate transaminase and urinary albumin excretion rate Increased in the SOD level by Chinese propolis	[55]
Ethanol extract of Iranian Propolis	STZ-induced diabetic Wistar rats	100 mg/kg per day and 200 mg/kg per day for 6 weeks	Decreased level of malondialdehyde Improvement in SOD and GPx activities	[56]
Brazilian Red Propolis	5/6 renal ablation model Wistar rats	150 mg/kg per day for three months	Reduced instances of glomerulosclerosis, Decreased level of serum creatinine retention, hypertension, proteinuria, oxidative stress and renal macrophage infiltration	[44]
Propolis, unknown source	Methotrexate-induced kidney injury in male Wistar albino rats	100 mg/kg per day for 15 days	Minimized the rise in the number of apoptotic cells; heat shock proteins-70 expression Improved kidney morphology	[57]
Taiwanese green propolis	Aristolochic acids-induced nephropathy model in C57BL/6 mice	0.2 mg/kg for 12 weeks	Improved tubulointerstitial fibrosis; facilitated renal excretion of p-cresyl sulfate and indoxyl sulfate	[58]