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. 2023 Feb 17;12(4):650. doi: 10.3390/cells12040650

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Roles of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and their regulatory mechanisms. PPAR ligands bind to the PPAR ligand-binding domain and activate receptors. PPARs interact with heat shock protein (HSP) in the cytosol. PPARs inhibit inflammation-related gene transcription by interfering with transcription factors such as NF-κB, AP-1, STAT, and NFAT. PPARs form heterodimers with Retinoid X receptor (RXR), a receptor of 9-cis-retinoic acid (9-cis-RA), and bind to direct repeat 1 (DR-1), a peroxisome-proliferator-responsive element. The PPAR-RXR heterodimer complex and co-repressors represses target gene transcription. However, the complex with co-activators promotes target gene transcription. Through these mechanisms, PPARs play significant roles in energy metabolism, inflammatory modulation, and the cell cycle. AP-1, Activator protein 1; NF-κB, Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; NFAT, Nuclear factor of activated T cells; STAT, Signal transducer and activator of transcription.