EXHIBIT 3.

Association between debt prevalence and characteristics of US postgraduate medical resident trainees active during 2014–19

Characteristics			Model 1a		Model 2b
	Unadjusted odds ratio (N = 120,663)	95% CI	Adjusted odds ratio (N = 120,573)	95% CI	Adjusted odds ratio (N = 120,573)	95% CI
Race and ethnicity (ref: White)
American Indian/Alaska Native	1.32	0.83, 2.08	1.24	0.78, 2.0	1.17	0.73, 1.85
Asian	0.55	0.53, 0.57	0.58	0.56, 0.60	0.62	0.60, 0.64
Black	4.16	3.70, 4.71	4.19	3.71, 4.75	4.27	3.77, 4.83
Hispanic	1.71	1.56, 1.88	1.82	1.66, 2.0	1.87	1.70, 2.06
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander	1.46	0.66, 3.21	1.39	0.63, 3.07	1.39	0.63, 3.07
Multiracial, Hispanic	1.25	1.14, 1.37	1.25	1.14, 1.37	1.27	1.26, 1.39
Multiracial, non-Hispanic	0.83	0.77, 0.89	0.85	0.79, 0.92	0.87	0.80, 0.94
Other	0.87	0.77, 0.98	0.92	0.81, 1.03	0.96	0.85, 1.09
Gender (ref: female)
Male	—c	—c	1.03	1.0, 1.06	1.04	1.01, 1.08
Age at graduation, years (ref: under 24)
24–26	—c	—c	2.18	1.79, 2.66	2.25	1.84, 2.74
27–29	—c	—c	2.74	2.25, 3.34	2.84	2.33, 3.47
30–32	—c	—c	2.87	2.34, 3.51	2.98	2.43, 3.64
33+	—c	—c	4.45	3.60, 5.50	4.49	3.63, 5.56
Specialty (ref: family medicine)
Surgery	—c	—c	—d	—d	0.62	0.58, 0.67
Internal medicine	—c	—c	—d	—d	0.52	0.49, 0.56
Pediatrics	—c	—c	—d	—d	0.69	0.63, 0.74
Emergency medicine	—c	—c	—d	—d	0.78	0.72, 0.85
Other	—c	—c	—d	—d	0.60	0.56, 0.64
Residency program region (ref: central)
Northeast	—c	—c	—d	—d	0.74	0.71, 0.77
South	—c	—c	—d	—d	0.83	0.80, 0.87
West	—c	—c	—d	—d	0.80	0.76, 0.84
Graduation year (ref: 2013 or earlier)
2014–16	—c	—c	0.70	0.67, 0.73	0.69	0.67, 0.72
2017 or later	—c	—c	0.50	0.48, 0.52	0.50	0.48, 0.52

source Authors’ analysis of trainee data from the Medical School Graduation Questionnaire and the Graduate Medical Education Track Resident Survey, both administered by the Association of American Medical Colleges. notes The results are odds ratios of having debt. Reference groups (value = 1.00) are in parentheses.

^aModel 1 adjusted for demographic characteristics (gender, age at graduation, and graduation year).

^bModel 2 adjusted for demographic and residency program characteristics (gender, age at graduation, graduation year, region, and specialty).

^cNot applicable.

^dNot adjusted for in the indicated model.