Table 1.

Comparison between the different animal models available to study NDDs and their degree of similarity to humans.

Animal Model	Animal	Advantages	Disadvantages	References
Drosophila melanogaster	-	Easy to measure behavioral phenotypes		[22,23,24]
		Reduced size
		Easy to manipulate genetically
		Absence of genetic redundancy	Lack of neuronal complexity
		Cost-effective	Organ and physiological disparity from humans
		Easy maintenance	Lower translatability to clinics
		Short-life cycle
		Suitable for large-scale drug and genetic screenings
Caenorhabditis elegans	-	Well-characterized nervous system		[25,26]
		Transparent body
		Reduced size
		Easy to manipulate genetically	Lack of neuronal complexity
		Cost-efficient	Organ and physiological disparity from humans
		Easy maintenance	Lower translatability to clinics
		Short-life cycle
		Suitable for large-scale drug and genetic screenings
Zebrafish (Danio rerio)	-	Short reproductive cycle		[27,28]
		Presence of a brain
		Transparent embryos and larvae	Lack of neuronal complexity
		Cost-efficient	Lower translatability to clinics
		Useful for drug and genetic screenings
		Presents well-defined circuits with conserved synaptic systems
Rodent models	Mice (Mus musculus) Rats (Rattus norvegicus)	High face validity		[29,30,31]
		High resemblance to humans
		Similar molecular pathways affected in disease	Insufficient cortical and circuitry complexity
		Some cognitive and social behaviors resembling humans’
		Amenable to genetic manipulation
		Suitable for pre-clinical drug testing
Non-human primates	Cynomolgus	Highest resemblance to human genetics, brain structure and cognitive function	Demanding genomic editing strategies	[32,33]
	Rhesus macaque	Higher cognitive and social behaviors resemblance to humans	High cost
	Marmoset	Amenable to genetic manipulation	Long developmental time
		Suitable for pre-clinical drug testing