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Illustration of proposed mechanisms behind the kidney–gut axis linking gut microbiota dysbiosis to chronic kidney disease (CKD). LPS = lipopolysaccharide; TLR4 = toll-like receptor 4; SCFA = short chain fatty acid; IS = indoxyl sulfate; PCS = p-cresyl sulfate; Th17 = T-helper 17 cell; Treg = regulatory T cell; AHR = aryl hydrocarbon receptor; TMAO = trimethylamine-N-oxide; TMA = trimethylamine.
