Table 1.

Summary of Pediatric Renal Disease Studies on Gut Microbiota.

Pediatric Renal Disease	Study Population	Main Significant Findings	References
CKD	86 children and adolescents with CKD stage 1–3	↓Urinary concentrations of TMAO and DMA in CKD stage 2–3; ↓Genus Prevotella in CKD children with hypertension	Hsu et al., 2018 [36]
CKD	78 children and adolescents with CKD stage 1–4	↑Phylum Verrucomicrobia, genus Akkermansia, and ↓species Bifidobacterium bifidum in CKD children with non-glomerulonephritis; ↑Plasma levels of butyric acid and propionic acid in CKD children with hypertension	Hsu et al., 2019 [37]
CKD	115 children and adolescents with CKD stage 1–4	↑Plasma concentrations of DMA, TMA, and TMAO in children with CKD stage 2–4; ↓Phylum Cyanobacteria, genera Subdoligranulum, Ruminococcus, Faecalibacterium, and Akkermansia in CKD children with hypertension	Hsu et al., 2020 [38]
CKD	105 children with CKD stage 1–4	The index of higher plasma butyrate was positively correlated with worsened blood pressure at 1-year follow-up.	Lu et al., 2021 [39]
CKD/KT	38 children and adolescents with CKD stage 3–5 (12 CKD stage 3–4, 11 HD, 15 KT); 10 controls	Gut barrier dysfunction and microbial metabolite imbalance. Plasma metabolite analysis showed a stage-dependent increase in tryptophan metabolites.	Holle et al., 2022 [40]
ESKD/KT	26 children and adolescents with ESKD (8 HD, 8 PD, 10 KT); 13 controls	↓α-diversity in PD and KT; ↑Phylum Bacteroidetes in HD; ↑Plasma levels of indoxyl sulfate and p-cresyl sulfate in HD and PD; ↓Phyla Firmicutes and Actinobacteria in PD;↑family Enterobacteriaceae in PD	Crespo-Salgado et al., 2016 [41]
INS	12 children and adolescents with INS; 11 controls	↓Fecal butyric acid level; ↓Butyrate-producing bacteria belonging to Clostridium clusters IV and XIVa	Tsuji et al., 2018 [42]
INS	20 children and adolescents with INS	↑Genera Stomatobaculum Romboutsia, and Cloacibacillus after 4-week initial therapy	Kang et al., 2019 [43]
INS	20 children and adolescents with INS	↓Butyrate-producing bacteria	Yamaguchi et al., 2021 [44]
SRNS	16 children and adolescents with SRNS	↑Lachnospira, Bacteroides and Faecalibacterium after a 4-week dietary intervention	Pérez-Sáez et al., 2021 [45]

Studies tabulated according to types of pediatric renal disease and year of publication. CKD = chronic kidney disease; KT = kidney transplantation; INS = idiopathic nephrotic syndrome; SRNS = steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome; HD = hemodialysis; PD = peritoneal dialysis; DMA = dimethylamine; TMAO = trimethylamine N-oxide; TMA = trimethylamine; ↑ = increased; ↓ = decreased.