Table 2.

Expression of cytokines and interferons in virus-infected astrocytes.

Virus	Cell/Tissue	Inflammatory Cytokines and Chemokines	Chemokines	References
TBEV	primary human astrocytes	TNF α, IFN α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8	CCL4/MIP-1β, CXCL10	[9]
WNV	U373 astrocytic cell line	IL-1β	CXCL10, CCL2	[139]
WNV	primary human astrocytes	N/A	CXCL10, CCL5	[140]
ZIKV	primary human brain cortical astrocytes	IL-6, IL-8, IL-12,	CXCL-10, CCL5	[16]
ZIKV	primary human brain cortical astrocytes	IL-6, IL-1α, IL-4, TGF-β1	CXCL-10, CCL5	[10]
JEV	mouse astrocytes (in situ)	N/A	CXCL10	[141]
JEV	primary rat astrocytes	IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β	CCL5	[142]
JEV	primary human astrocytes	IL-6	CXCL10, CCL2/3/4	[12]
JEV	human fetal astrocyte cell line SVG	IL-18, IL-1β		[143]
SeV	primary mouse astrocytes	IL-6, TNF-α	N/A	[27]
RABV	mouse astrocytes (in situ)	IFN-β	N/A	[63]
SARS-CoV-2	astrocytes differentiated from hiPSCs	N/A ***	N/A	[32]
HSV-1	mouse perivascular astrocytes (in situ) and primary astrocytes		CXCL-1	[144]
HIV-1	primary human astrocytes ****	IL-6, IL-8		[145]
HIV-1	primary human fetal astrocytes	TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8		[146]
VSV	primary mouse astrocytes	IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-β		[27,63]
EV71	mouse brain astrocytes, in situ	IL-6		[23]
TEMV	primary human astrocytes	IL-8	MCP-1	[25]
TEMV	mouse astrocytes (in situ)	IFN-β		[63]
JHMV **	spinal cord astrocytes (in situ)		CXCL10	[147]
MHV-A59 *	astrocyte cell line	IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-15, IL-13, IL-17	CXCL10	[148]
TLR3 ligation	human astrocytes	IL-6, IFN-α	CXCL-10	[73]

hiPSCs, human-induced pluripotent stem cells; N/A, not applicable.* Experimental murine coronavirus, murine coronavirus mouse hepatitis virus A-59 (MHV-A59). ** JHM variant V2.2-1 of mouse hepatitis virus (JHMV). *** Not tested in astrocytes, but TLR3/7 and IL-6 were upregulated in neurons. **** Cells transfected with plasmid encoding HIV-1 Nef.