Table 1.

Experimental Approach for Osteoimmunomodulation Characterization.

In Vitro and In Vivo Assays	Physical and Chemical Characterization	Biocompatibility Evaluation and Biomechanical Analysis
Cell culture-based assays (osteoblast, osteoclast, macrophage) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) Alkaline phosphatase activity assays Mineralization assays	X-ray diffraction (XRD) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Dynamic light scattering (DLS)	Cytotoxicity assays (MTT, LDH) Hemocompatibility assays (hemolysis, platelet activation) Inflammation assays (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6)
Implantation studies in animal models (rats, mice, rabbits) Histological analysis (bone formation and resorption) Micro-computed tomography (μCT) Bone density measurements	Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) X-ray fluorescence (XRF) Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR)	Contact angle measurements Zeta potential measurements Surface roughness analysis Compression tests Tensile tests Indentation tests