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. 2023 Feb 17;24(4):4089. doi: 10.3390/ijms24044089

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© 2023 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Schematics of Gut–Brain Axis (GBA). The gut luminal environment, including the gut microbiome, affects the physiology and behavior of the brain via multiple routes. (I) The vague nerve senses gut hormones and microbial metabolites from the gut environment and delivers the signals to the brain. (II) Microbial products can cross the gut epithelial barrier, which makes them eventually enter systemic circulation. Additionally, some gut hormones are secreted into the bloodstream, stimulating the immune system, or traveling to the BBB, which affects changes in the physiology and behavior of the BBB and brain. Created with BioRender.com. The reproduction of this image has been licensed from BioRender.