Table 3.

Recent developments in treating bacterial infections.

Species	Sample	Intervention	Outcomes	Ref. Year
S. mutans	Healthy subjects	Chlorhexidine and garlic extract mouthwash	Garlic extract inhibited S. mutans in both in vitro and in vivo studies.	[130] 2010
A. gerencseriae	Patients with aggressive periodontitis	Systemic azithromycin	Azithromycin could slightly reduce the subgingival periodontal pathogens	[131] 2012
Actinomyces spp.	Smoker and non-smoker subjects	Metronidazole and Amoxicillin	The non-smokers showed the lowest proportions of the orange complex and a meaningful increase in the proportions of Actinomyces species.	[132] 2013
S. mutans	Children with decayed, missing, or filled teeth	Propolis and xylitol chewing gums	Both gums reduced the bacterial saliva load suggesting them an anti-cariogenic agent.	[133] 2014
Lactobacillus spp. Actinomyces naeslundii S. mutans	Healthy adult subjects	Beverages containing apple fiber and polyphenols from boysenberry	The apple-boysenberry beverage exerted the most reduction on the colonization and biofilm adhesion.	[134] 2017
S. mutans	Adolescent subjects with disabilities	Xylitol gum	The xylitol gum significantly reduced the caries rate.	[73] 2017
S. mutans	Young subjects	Mouthwashes containing chlorhexidine, xylitol, and chlorhexidine + xylitol	All mouthwashes effectively reduced plaque, gingivitis, and bacterial saliva level.	[135] 2017
S. pseudopneumoniae A. odontolyticus	Adults with bronchiectasis	Erythromycin	The intervention significantly decreased the oropharyngeal microbiota composition.	[136] 2018
A. actinomycetemcomitans A. naeslundii A. viscosus E. faecalis E. coli L. casei S. oralis S. sanguinis C. albicans	In vitro study	Several flavonoids	Among the eight tested flavonoids, morin was the most effective; however other four flavonoids, including luteolin, naringin, quercetin, and rutin, could also decrease bacterial and fungal growth.	[137] 2019
A. israelii E. faecium F. nucleatum L. gasseri S. mutans V. parvula	In vitro study	Curcumin, protoporphyrin IX, resazurin, riboflavin, and light irradiation	All tested agents decreased the oral bacterial growth.	[138] 2019
E. faecalis S. gordonii A. naeslundii L. acidophilus	In vitro study	Dimethylaminododecyl methacrylate (DMADDM) and EndoREZ	The two tested sealers showed similar cytotoxicity, apical sealing ability, and solubility; however, DMADDM showed different properties at a mass fraction of 5%.	[139] 2019
S. oralis A. naeslundii V. parvula F. nucleatum P. gingivalis A. actinomycetemcomitans	In vitro study	Red wine, dealcoholized red wine, polyphenols-rich extracts from wine, and polyphenols-rich extracts from grape seeds	Conventional and dealcoholized red wine reduced the bacteria load within the biofilm, especially about P. gingivalis and A. actinomycetemcomitans.	[140] 2019
S. mutans A. naeslundii	In vitro study	Surface pre-reacted glass-ionomer filler in a resin-based composite incorporated with 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine	The polymer added in the filler composite inhibited bacterial attachment and biofilm growth.	[141] 2019
A. naeslundii E. faecalis	Extracted single-rooted human mandibular first premolars	Platelet-rich fibrin scaffold with or without a 3-antibiotic mixture containing minocycline, metronidazole, and ciprofloxacin	The combination of scaffold and antibiotic mixture showed the highest antibacterial activity.	[142] 2020
S. mutans L. casei A. naeslundii	Human mandibular third molars	Diode laser and 2% chlorhexidine gluconate solution	All three cariogenic bacteria were affected by a diode.	[143] 2020
S. oralis A. naeslundii V. parvula F. nucleatum P. gingivalis A. actinomycetemcomitans	In vitro study in a subgingival biofilm model	Doxycycline, zinc, and calcium doped polymeric nanostructured membrane that is non-resorbable	The nanostructured membrane significantly reduced the biofilm growth dynamics and bacterial load.	[144] 2020
S. mutans S. gordonii S. sobrinus A. naeslundii F. nucleatum A. actinomycetemcomitans P. gingivalis E. faecalis	In vitro study in planktonic culture	Fruit juices derived from blackcurrant, redcurrant, cranberry, and raspberry	Blackcurrant, redcurrant, and cranberry juices had the most suppressing effect on bacterial growth, respectively, while raspberry only significantly suppressed the growth of P. gingivalis.	[53] 2020
S. mutans	In vitro study on extracted teeth	A composite of nano-calcium fluoride and dimethylaminohexadecyl methacrylate	The composite showed promising fluoride release features and antibacterial functions.	[145] 2020
E. faecalis S. mutans A. israelii	In vitro study	Three licorice-derived polyphenols and cinnamon oil	The tested natural plant-derived compounds showed promising root canal disinfection properties.	[146] 2020
S. mutans S. sobrinus A. viscosus L. acidophilus	In vitro study	Caffeic acid phenethyl ester	The tested agent exerted high bactericidal and inhibitory activities against biofilms, cariogenic bacteria, and their virulence.	[147] 2020
S. mutans A. naeslundii	Human dentin blocks Periodontitis animal model	Surface pre-reacted glass-ionomer nanofillers	The tested nanofiller coating showed antibacterial effects on the tooth surfaces and improved the clinical parameters of periodontitis.	[148] 2021
S. sanguinis	In vitro study	The concentration of H2O2	It has been shown that S. sanguinis evades neutrophil killing in vitro and counteracts innate immunity by the action of SpxB in collected blood	[149] 2017
S. salivarius	Induced oral mucositis by experimental radiation in mice	The mouse oral cavity was treated daily with S. salivarius K12	Cancer patients receiving radiotherapy may benefit from S. salivarius K12 as an adjuvant treatment.	[150] 2021
S. salivarius	Primary human gingival fibroblasts	Pathogen-induced fibroblasts were treated with S. salivarius M18K12, K12, and fractions of its supernatant and whole-cell lysate	Periodontal disease pathogens were prevented from activating the immune system by S.salivarius M18 and K12. After chewing gum was administered with S. salivarius K12, the salivary microbiome and immune system did not change.	[151] 2021
S. sanguinis	In vitro study	Measurement of SsaACB manganese transporter	In acidic conditions, SK36 mutants lacking SsaACB display reduced growth and manganese uptake. S. sanguinis may have a variety of manganese transporters due to the heterogeneity of its oral environment.	[152] 2022
C. albicans, S. aureus and P. aeruginosa	In vitro study	Pomegranate (PomeGr) and microRepair (MicroR)	There were similarities in the effects of MicroR and PomeGr; however, the effectiveness of the two, given separately or in combination, varied based on which microbial agent was being treated.	[153] 2022