Table 6.

In vivo therapeutic effects of alkaloids on experimental IBD.

No.	Name	Type	Origin	Optimal Doses (/kg Body Weight) or Concentrations	Model	Potential Mechanism	References
104	Capsaicin	Vanilloid	Capsicum	12 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in Sprague–Dawley rats	Inhibits oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and pain signaling.	[211]
105	Matrine	Quinolizidine alkaloid	Sophora flavescens	12 mg/mL	TNBS-ethanol-induced ulcerative colitis in Wistar rats	Reduces inflammatory response and oxidative stress damage.	[212]
				20 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Improves the integrity of the intestinal barrier, inhibits the PPAR-α signaling pathway, and regulates intestinal flora.	[213]
106	Evodiamine	Alkaloid	Evodia rutaecarpa	30 mg	DSS-induced chronic colitis in C57BL/6 mice	Reduces the inflammatory response by preventing damage to the intestinal mucosal barrier and regulating the secretion of inflammatory cytokines.	[214]
107	Nuciferine	Alkaloid	Nymphaea caerulea	20 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Regulation of gut microbiota homeostasis and immune function in UC mice.	[215]
108	Piperine	Piperidine alkaloid	Piper boehmeriifolium	40 mg	TNBS-induced colitis in Sprague–Dawley rats	Inhibits IκB-α/NF-κB and induces the tight junction proteins claudin-1, occludin, and ZO-1.	[209]
				10 mg	Acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis in Swiss albino mice	Downregulated the production and expression of inflammatory mediators and reduced the FFA-induced TLR4-mediated inflammatory response.	[208]
109	Nicotine	Alkaloid	Tobacco	10 μg	DSS-induced acute colitis in C57BL/6 mice	Regulates autophagy via AMPK/mTOR pathway; improves inflammation levels.	[40]
110	Neferine	Isoquinoline alkaloid	Nelumbo nucifera	10 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in C57BL/6J mice	Inhibition of inflammatory response.	[216]
				25 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in C57BL/6 mice	Inhibited iNOS, COX-2, receptor-interacting protein 1 (RIP1), RIP3, and increased caspase-8 protein expression in colonic tissues.	[217]
111	Anatabine	Bipyridines	Nicotiana cavicola	20 mg	DSS-induced colitis in C57BL/6 mice	Improves intestinal inflammation and reduces the production of pro-inflammatory factors.	[218]
112	Phellodendrine	Alkaloid	Phellodendron chinense	30 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in C57BL/6 mice	Reduces inflammatory response and promotes autophagy by regulating AMPK-mTOR signaling pathway.	[219]
113	Epiisopiloturine	Imidazole alkaloid	jaborandi	1 mg	TNBS-induced colitis in Wistar rats	Downregulation of inflammatory processes by inhibiting the synthesis and release of inflammatory products, lipid peroxidation, and expression of inflammatory enzymes.	[220]
114	Camptothecin	Quinoline alkaloid	Camptotheca acuminata	1.5 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in C57BL/6 mice	Inhibition of inflammatory responses through AKT, NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways.	[210]
115	Strictosamide	Beta-carboline	Amsonia orientalis	40 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Improving the inflammatory response and NF-κB signaling pathway.	[221]
116	Berberine	Isoquinoline alkaloid	Berberis vulgaris	40 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Regulates the intestinal microbiota and protects the mucosal barrier.	[206]
				100 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in C57BL/6 mice and Sprague–Dawley rats	Regulation of intestinal glial cell-intestinal epithelial cell-immune cell interactions.	[207]
117	Oxymatrine	Quinolizidine alkaloid	Sophora pachycarpa	20 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in Kunming mice	Reduces inflammatory response and re-establishes antioxidant/oxidant balance.	[222]
				50 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Inhibition of PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.	[223]
118	Sophocarpine	Quinolizidine alkaloid	Daphniphyllum oldhamii	30 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Maintains the integrity of the colonic barrier and inhibits the development of colitis.	[224]
119	Capnoidine	Tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloid	Fumaria capreolata	/	TNBS-induced acute colitis in C57BL/6 mice	Reduction of colonic histological inflammation.	[225]
120	Oxyberberine	Benzyl tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloid	Thalictrum lucidum	50 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Influence on the intestinal epithelial barrier, intestinal microbiota, and TLR4-MyD88-NF-κB pathway.	[226]
121	Aloperine	Quinolizidine alkaloid	Thinicola incana	40 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Inhibits the PP2A-Mediated PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway.	[227]
122	Berberrubine	Benzyl tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloid	Coptischinensis	20 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Reduction of mucosal lesions and inflammation.	[228]
123	Sinomenine	Morphinane alkaloid	Sinomenium acutum	100 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in C57BL/6 mice	Alleviation of colitis through the Nrf2/NQO 1 signaling pathway.	[229]
124	N-Methylcytisine	Quinolizidine alkaloid	Thermopsis lanceolata	16 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in ICR mice	Inhibition of NF-κB activation.	[230]
125	Tetrandrine	Bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid	Pachygone dasycarpa	/	DSS-induced acute colitis in mice	Promoting occludin expression through the AhR-miR-429 pathway.	[231]
				40 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in C57BL/6 mice	Inhibition of NF-κB activation.	[232]
126	Norisoboldine	Benzyl tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloid	Cassytha pubescens	40 mg	TNBS-induced colitis in BALB/c mice	Regulation of the AhR/Nrf2/ROS signaling pathway inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation.	[233]
127	Dihydroberberine	Isoquinoline alkaloid	Thalictrum foliolosum	50 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Improved intestinal barrier function; reduced colonic pro-inflammatory cytokines and immunoglobulins by blocking TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway; improved colonic immune inflammation status.	[234]
128	Palmatine	Isoquinoline alkaloid	Berberis poiretii	50 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Inhibition of tryptophan metabolism and regulation of intestinal flora.	[235]
				100 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Promoting PINK1/Parkin-driven mitochondrial autophagy and thereby inactivating NLRP3 inflammasome in macrophages.	[236]
129	Coptisine	Tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloid	Fumaria capreolata	100 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Improvement of intestinal barrier dysfunction and inhibition of inflammatory response.	[237]
130	Sanguinarine	Benzophenanthridine alkaloid	Sanguinaria canadensis	10 mg	Acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis in Kunming mice	Effective inhibition of p65 NF-κB protein expression and MPO activity accumulation.	[238]
131	5-Hydroxy-4-methoxycanthin-6-one	Indole alkaloid	Picrasma quassioides	100 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in Sprague–Dawley rats	Regulation of metabolic profile and inhibition of NF-κB/p65 signaling pathway.	[239]`
132	Isatin	Indole alkaloid	Couroupita guianensis	25 mg	TNBS-induced colitis in Wistar Hannover rats	Protects the intestinal mucosa from TNBS-induced damage through a combination of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.	[240]
133	Caulerpin	Indole alkaloid	Caulerpa obscura	4 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in C57BL/6 mice	Inhibition of NF-κB pathway activation.	[241]
134	Indirubin	Indole alkaloid	Isatis tinctoria	10 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Inhibition of DSS-induced activation of NF-κB and MAPK pathways.	[242]
				10 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Inhibition of inflammation and induction of regulatory T cell expression foxp3.	[243]
135	Rutaecarpine	Indole alkaloid	Tetradium ruticarpum	80 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in C57BL/6J mice	Inhibition of KEAP1-NRF2 interaction and activation of NRF2.	[244]
136	Daurisoline	Isoquinoline alkaloid	Menispermum dauricum	40 mg	DSS-induced acute colitis in BALB/c mice	Involved in NF-κB and Wnt/β-Catenin pathways.	[245]
137	14-O-acetylneoline	Diterpenoid alkaloid	Aconitum laciniatum	/	TNBS-induced colitis in C57BL/6 mice	Reduced IFN-γ mRNA levels in colonic tissues.	[246]

“/” indicates that the reference is not mentioned or is unclear.