Table 1.

Nanocarrier mediated immunotherapy interventions and their effect on various cancers.

Type of Therapy	Nanoparticle	Drug/Reactive Component	Cancer Type	Effect	References
Cancer Vaccine	Hydrogel	CaCO3	TNBC	DC maturation and T-cell activation	[30]
	OVA-EPC-Span85 complex	OVA	Mouse lymphoma	Activates both cellular and humoral immunity	[31]
	Hydrogel-encapsulated GM-CSF, CpG-ODN	GM-CSF, CpG-ODN, a TLR 9 agonist, and tumour cell lysates	Mouse colon carcinoma and Melanoma	Dendritic cell maturation and Immune system activation	[32]
	CaP-peptide vaccine	Calcium phosphate (CaP) and Peptides	Colon cancer and Breast cancer	Dendritic cell maturation	[20]
	CS/γ-PGA nanoparticle	MUC1 glycopeptide antigens	Breast cancer	Produce significantly high titers of IgG antibody	[33]
	A novel polyethyleneimine (PEI)-based personalized vaccine—NP vaccination combined with STING agonist therapy	Neoantigen peptides and CpG adjuvants in a compact nanoparticle	Colon carcinoma and melanoma	Tumour infiltration of CD8+ T cells	[27]
	CTX-loaded hydrogel and PLEL hydrogel	CpG and tumour lysates	Colon carcinoma	Produces the cytotoxic T lymphocyte and Immunogenic cell death	[34]
	Fe3O4 nanocomposite	OVA	Melanoma	Efficiently stimulate dendritic cell-based immunotherapy and potentially-activate macrophages	[35]
	CaCO3 Nanoparticle	CaCO3@(OVA/HPAA-CpG)3 vaccines	Lymphoma	Dendritic cell maturation and CD8+ T-cell proliferation	[36]
	A PEG derivative (PpASE) stabilized aluminium nanoparticle for delivering the synthetic long peptides (ANLs)	ANLs ANSs	Melanoma	Activation and proliferation of CD8+ T cells	[37]
	Mn-NP (Carrier and adjuvant)	OVA (Model Antigen), CpG (Adjuvant), Anti-PDL1	Melanoma	Activation of the cGAS-STING pathway. Nanovaccine (NV) or Personalized NV (s.c.) Anti-PD-L1 (i.v.)	[38]
	DGBA-OVA-CpG nanovaccine	unmethylated cytosine-guanine dinucleotides (CpG) (adjuvant)	Melanoma	Controlled tumour growth along with anti-PD1 checkpoint inhibition	[39]
	Bi-specific macrophage nano-engager (BiME)	Serum albumin and targeted moiety	Melanoma	Robust T-cell activation	[40]
	Nanotransformer- based vaccine with anti-PD-L1 antibodies	A polymer–peptide conjugate-based nanotransformer and loaded antigenic pep	Melanoma	Activates the NLRP3- inflammasome pathway and thus boosts antitumour immunity and stimulation of CD8+ T cells	[41]
Immunotherapy	Tumour exosomes (TEX)	HSP70, HSP90, MHC I, MHC II, TGF-β, and PD-L1	TNBC	Dendritic cell activation, Cytotoxic T-cell-mediated immune response	[24]
	Magnetic nanocomplexes (Iron oxide)	-	TNBC	STING activation and Macrophage polarization	[42]
	Folic acid conjugated superparamagnetic iron oxide, Trimethyl chitosan (TMC) nanoparticles	EZH2/CD73 siRNA	TNBC	Gene silencing	[43]
	LPS-decorated PLGA nanoparticles	LPS	Murine colon adeno-carcinoma and glioma	Activation of TLR4 Macrophage and DCs Proliferation	[44]
	MUC1-Dex	-	Melanoma	Activation of CD8+ T cells	[45]
	ZNPs/I@CML	Indomethacin	Prostate cancer	ZSTK is an effective pan-PI3K inhibitor, Macrophage polarization	[46]
	Cargo-free PLG nanoparticles	Anti-PD-L1 antibody	TNBC	Decrease the expression of MCP-1 by 5-fold and increase the expression of TNF-α by more than 2-fold upon uptake by innate immune cells	[47]
	Poly (beta-amino ester) (PBAE) nanoparticle	Cyclic dinucleotides (CDNs)	Melanoma	Stimulator of interferon receptor (STING) enhanced cancer immunotherapy	[48]
	UPP@OVA complex	Yb and Er-doped NaY/GdF4 UCNPs	Melanoma	Enhanced T-cell proliferation, interferon gamma production and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) mediated responses	[49]
	Split bullet nanoparticle	Doxorubicin and iRGD peptide	Melanoma	Suppress primary melanoma and initiate immune memory against tumour recurrence	[50]
	pH sensitive liposomes	Pyranine and antigenic protein Ovalbumin (OVA)	Lymphoma	Increased specific immunity and tumour regression occurred	[51]
Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy	Z-domain conjugated ferumoxytol nanocarrier	Nanointerface (aPD-L1-Z-Fer)	Hepato-cellular carcinoma	Block the PD-1/PD-L1 (Programmed death ligand)	[52]
Immunogene therapy	Miktoarm star polymer (PDMAEMA-POEGMA) nanoparticles	βIII-tubulin, Polo-Like Kinase 1 (PLK1)—siRNA	NSCLC	Gene silencing	[53]
	Methoxypoly (ethylene glycol)—Poly(caprolactone) was hybridized with Dimethyldioctadecyl-ammonium bromide (DDAB) cationic lipid (mPEG-PCL-DDAB) nanoparticles“mPEG-PCL-DDAB nanoparticle”	Anti-insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor-siRNA and lycopene	Breast cancer	Apoptosis and arrested cell cycle	[54]
Chemoimmunotherapy	Pep-PAPM	Anti-PD-L1 peptide and Paclitaxel	TNBC	PD-L1 blockade and ROS-induced damage	[55]
	231MARS@PLGA	PD-L1 inhibitor and Paclitaxel	TNBC	Affect the tumour stiffness	[56]
	SK/siTGF-β NPs	Shikonin and siTGF-β	TNBC	Dendritic cell activation, Cytotoxic cell-mediated immune response	[57]
	PEG-b-PNHS polymer-conjugated 5-ASA (PASA) Folate-PEG-NH2-conjugated PASA (FASA)	5-ASA and DOX	Mouse breast and colon cancer models	Anti-PD-L1 Activation. Macrophage activation and proliferation	[58]
	Ferritin nanocages	PD-L1pep1 and Doxorubicin	Human breast tumour and mouse colon tumour	Inhibited PD-1/PD-L1 interaction and restored T-cell activity	[59]
	Nano assembly	JQ1/Rapa-IR783	TNBC	Co-inhibition of PD-L1/mTOR	[60]
	Doxorubicin/CpG self-assembled nanoparticles	Doxorubicin/CpG self-assembled nanoparticles, prodrug and dendritic cells (DC) co-encapsulated hydrogel system	Melanoma	Enhanced antigen presentation in DCs and CTL mediated tumour killing	[28]
	Nano-Folox (Nanoprecipitate of Folinic acid and Oxaliplatin)	Folinic acid (FnA), 5-fluorouracil (5-Fu), and oxaliplatin (OxP)	Colorectal cancer and hepatocellular carcinoma	Induce apoptosis and immunogenic cell death	[61]
	Nano-emulsion	Puerarin (nanoPue) and paclitaxel	TNBC	Deactivated tumour-associated fibroblast (TAFs) and 2-fold times increased the intra-tumoural infiltration of cytotoxic T cells	[62]
Chemotherapy and immune checkpoint blockade therapy	BMS/RA@CC-Liposome	Chemotherapeutic drug (RA-V) and PD-1/PD-L1 blockade inhibitor (BMS-202)	Colorectal carcinoma	Dendritic cell maturation, Cytotoxic T-cell-mediated immune response	[63]
	A metabolism nano-intervenor of DCs (Man-OVA(RSV) NPs) was loaded in a versatile hydrogel system	Metformin hydrochloride (MET), Rosuvastatin (RSV)	Melanoma	DC-mediated immunotherapy	[26]
Exocytosis blockade of ER along with anti-PD-L1 therapy	Homologous cancer cell membrane coated nanoparticle (HCC@NP)	Brefeldin A (BFA)	Melanoma	Antitumour immunity and reversing immune suppression	[64]
Radioimmunotherapy	Hybrid nanoplatform (MGTe) composed of gTe (glutathione (GSH) decorated Te nanoparticles)	gTe was designed for radiotherapy sensitization, concurrently the fusion of TM and BM was expected for amplifying antitumour immune response	Breastcancer	X-Ray irradiation: ROS production and Immunogenic death (ICD) APC maturation and T-cell stimulation.	[65]
	Chitosan/γ-PGA nanoparticles	-	TNBC	Decrease in the percentage of immunosuppressive myeloid cells and an increase in the antitumoural CD4+IFN-γ+ population	[66]
Photothermal immunotherapy	Nano modulator IQS (ICG/JQ1/BMS nanoparticles)	ICG/JQ1/BMS	Mouse colon carcinoma	Immunogenic cell death (ICD) upon laser irradiation (PTT) and dual-block PD-L1 and IDO-1 pathways	[67]
	Prussian blue nanoparticles (PBNP)	CpG-PBNP-PTT	Neuro-blastoma	T-cell activation and robust memory generation	[68]
	Polydopamine–Mesoporous Silica Core–Shell Nanoparticles	Polydopamine nanoparticle—Photothermal agent Gardiquimod—Immunomodulatory drug	Murine melanoma	Photothermal ablation of the cancer cells	[69]
	ICG-loaded magnetic nanoparticles (MIRDs)	Polyethylene glycol polyphenols (DPA-PEG)-R837 loaded	Breast cancer	Inhibited tumour growth and metastasis and recurrence	[70]
Photodynamic Immuno therapy	Nano-booster (NC@Ce6)	Anti-programmed death-ligand 1 (aPDL1) and photosensitizer (Ce6) into the acid-responsive nanocomplex (NC)	Melanoma	ROS generation and Immunogenic cell death. Increases the intra-tumoural infiltration of CD8+ T cells	[22]
	PyroR	Photosensitizer pyropheophorbide-a (Pyro) and TLR agonist resiquimod (R848)	Breast cancer	ROS generation. Dendritic cells (DCs) maturation and activate cytotoxic T lymphocytes. R848 induces macrophage repolarization.	[23]
	Hybrid CTTPA-G using cancer cell membranes (CC-Ms) and mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs)	Type I AIE photosensitizer (TTPA) and glutamine antagonist	Melanoma	Regulate nutrition partitioning and remodelling the immune suppressive microenvironment	[71]
Ferrotherapy and immunotherapy	Nanoparticle—fusion of hepcidin and leukemia cell membrane vesicles on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)	Hollow mesoporous Prussian blue (AuPB@LMHep)	Leukemia	Immune response amplification via Ferrotherapy against tumour	[72]
Chemophotothermal therapy	Hollow gold nanostars (HGNSs) and gold nanocages (GNCs)	Doxorubicin	Breast cancer	Apoptosis	[73]
Photoimmunotherapy (Photodynamic/photo-thermal and immune-modulatory effects)	Nanoporphyrin platform	Mouse mAb anti-PD-L1	TNBC	Sensitizing the “cold” tumour microenvironment via laser therapy followed by Immune checkpoint Blockade (PD-L1 blockade)	[74]
	Black phosphorus and PEGylated Hyaluronic acid (HA-BP nanoparticle)	HA-BP	TNBC	Macrophage polarization. Immunogenic cell death and maturation of DCs	[24]