Table 2.
Sample characteristics and bivariate analyses.
| Overall sample | Urban locals | Rural-origin locals | Urban-origin migrants | Rural-origin migrants | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean/% | SD | Mean/% | SD | Mean/% | SD | Mean/% | SD | Mean/% | SD | χ2/F (df = 3) |
p | ||
| Child age (months) | 51.43 | (9.19) | 51.47 | (9.13) | 51.88 | (9.19) | 50.92 | (9.13) | 50.39 | (9.26) | 2.41 | ||
| Female | 47.02 | 46.62 | 46.94 | 48.10 | 47.06 | 0.18 | |||||||
| Minority | 7.83 | 4.84 | 10.71 | 4.20 | 6.68 | 26.88 | *** | ||||||
| Ln (annual income) | 9.04 | (1.53) | 9.41 | (1.35) | 8.65 | (1.50) | 9.62 | (1.54) | 9.21 | (1.56) | 53.07 | *** | |
| Paternal education | 3.52 | (1.37) | 4.25 | (1.37) | 2.90 | (1.06) | 4.51 | (1.42) | 3.46 | (1.17) | 234.76 | *** | |
| Maternal education | 3.48 | (1.35) | 4.14 | (1.36) | 2.91 | (1.05) | 4.61 | (1.35) | 3.32 | (1.12) | 238.08 | *** | |
| Paternal employment status | 91.16 | 91.84 | 88.61 | 94.86 | 95.02 | 18.55 | *** | ||||||
| Maternal employment status | 69.28 | 72.31 | 65.71 | 80.86 | 66.67 | 25.86 | *** | ||||||
| Place of residence | Western | 22.36 | 13.83 | 28.34 | 18.69 | 20.86 | 87.22 | *** | |||||
| Central | 29.84 | 31.67 | 32.39 | 22.49 | 24.60 | ||||||||
| Eastern | 47.79 | 54.50 | 39.28 | 58.82 | 54.55 | ||||||||
| Year | 2012 | 24.16 | 29.58 | 24.55 | 20.76 | 16.58 | 37.32 | *** | |||||
| 2014 | 25.43 | 22.19 | 27.56 | 26.64 | 23.26 | ||||||||
| 2016 | 29.48 | 28.30 | 29.20 | 29.76 | 32.09 | ||||||||
| 2018 | 20.93 | 19.94 | 18.69 | 22.84 | 28.07 | ||||||||
| Preschool attendance | 72.00 | 76.53 | 68.82 | 75.09 | 71.93 | 13.51 | ** | ||||||
| Type of preschool | No | 30.27 | 25.57 | 33.49 | 27.91 | 29.75 | 43.67 | *** | |||||
| Private preschool | 43.35 | 44.31 | 43.76 | 32.95 | 48.16 | ||||||||
| Public preschool | 26.38 | 30.12 | 22.76 | 39.15 | 22.10 | ||||||||
| HLEs | 2.86 | (0.95) | 3.21 | (0.81) | 2.54 | (0.97) | 3.29 | (0.78) | 2.96 | (0.89) | 103.49 | *** | |
| Reading | 3.17 | (1.44) | 3.66 | (1.31) | 2.73 | (1.44) | 3.76 | (1.21) | 3.26 | (1.39) | 82.03 | *** | |
| Learning characters | 3.09 | (1.40) | 3.39 | (1.29) | 2.78 | (1.42) | 3.48 | (1.27) | 3.26 | (1.38) | 38.73 | *** | |
| Outings | 3.14 | (1.30) | 3.52 | (1.10) | 2.77 | (1.37) | 3.64 | (1.03) | 3.27 | (1.21) | 71.01 | *** | |
| Buying books | 2.05 | (1.03) | 2.26 | (1.02) | 1.87 | (1.00) | 2.29 | (0.98) | 2.05 | (1.05) | 25.60 | *** | |
| Parental absence | 19.92 | 13.37 | 25.47 | 12.50 | 19.30 | 49.16 | *** | ||||||
| N of Observation | 2,446 | 622 | 1,161 | 289 | 374 | ||||||||
SD, Standard deviation. P-values are calculated with the chi-square (χ2) or ANOVA tests depending on the type of variable. The asterisks are used to denote a statistically significant result in the chi-square or ANOVA tests, ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.