Table 6.

Clinical trials examining the relationship of molecular mechanisms and clinical outcomes in major depressive disorder

Trial	Depression diagnosis criteria and type	Sample	Interventions	Study Duration	Treatment arms (n)	Outcomes
						Mechanism	Clinical	Relationship
Krogh et al., 2010162	ICD-10 /DSM-IV-MDI Unipolar Major	Males and females, 18–55y/o, referred by medical doctor or psychologist and met ICD-10 criteria, Exclusion: alcohol or substance abuse, acute suicidal risk, psychotic symptoms, medical conditions that contraindicated physical exercise, been on sick leave for >24mos, exercising >1hr/wk n=88 (only ‘completers’ included in analysis) ~39y/o 27% males	Outpatient setting P-AEx: 90mins of interval training; initially 2mins on: 2mins rest at 70% MHR and progress to 3mins on:1min rest at 89% MHR. AEx included cycling, running, stepping, abdominal exercises, rowing, trampoline, step bench, jump rope, and Ski Fitter PREx: 90mins for 2–3sets x12 reps at 50% 1-RM progressed to 2-3 sets x8-10 reps at 75% 1-RM. 6 exercises on machines (leg extension, leg press, total abdominal, lower back, chest press, vertical traction) and 3 with weights (calves, arm abductors, and triceps) Relax: 90mins of light activity at Borg RPE ≤12; 20–30mins exercise on mattresses or back massage, 10–20mins of light balance activities, and 20–30mins of supine relaxation. TAU: Pharm Pharm (%): P-AEx: 64.5% PREx: 62.1% Relax: 67.9%	16 weeks All groups: 2d/wk/16wks (32 supervised group sessions) TAU: NR	P-AEx + TAU (n=31)	pCORT ←→	HAM-D17 Δ NR	NR
					PREx + TAU (n=29)	pCORT ←→	HAM-D17 Δ NR	NR
					Relax + TAU (n=28)	pCORT ←→	HAM-D17 Δ NR	NR
						Note: No significant effect of intervention on resting cortisol or cortisol response to maximal exercise test. Changes in depression and relationship of cortisol with changes depression were not reported. Only completers (subjects completed intervention and provided pre and post blood samples) were included analysis.
Toups et al., 2011163	DSM-IV Major	Males and females, 18–70y/o, all had been treated with SSRI for 2–6mos prior and were partial or non-responders (HAM-D ≥14), not engaged in regular exercise Exclusion: history, physical exam or laboratory results indicating significant medical condition, depression due to comorbid psychiatric disorder; additional pharm, or psych n= 104 (70 completers) 47.6±9.4 y/o ~20% male	Outpatient setting AEx: either LD (4KKW) or HD (16KKW). Subjects self-selected intensity with the goal of meeting weekly energy expenditure through supervised and home-based exercise	12 weeks All sessions: initial sessions were supervised and tapered to one supervised session per week in week 3.	LD AEx (n=38)	sBDNF ←→	IDS-C ↓	τ = −.01
					HD AEx (n=32)	sBDNF ←→	IDS-C ↓	τ = −.01
						Note: Higher baseline levels of sBDNF predicted more rapid antidepressant response. High BMI at baseline amplified this response. No between group differences.
Krogh et al., 2012;51 Krogh et al. 2014153	DSM-IV-MINI Major	Males and females, 18–60 y/o, HAM-D ≥12 Exclusion: drug use, antidepressant use in past 2mos, receiving psych, contraindications to physical exercise, >1hr of PA/wk, suicidal behavior, current/previous psychotic or manic symptoms, pregnancy n= 115 41.6y/o (19–59 y/o) 33% male	Outpatient setting AEx: 10min warm-up, 30 mins on cycle ergometer (at least 65% of maximal capacity with progression to 80%), and 5min cool-down CON: 10min warm-up at low intensity on stationary bike, 20min program of stretching, 15min of low intensity exercise	12 weeks AEx: 3d/wk/12wks (36 supervised sessions) CON: 3d/wk/12wks (36 supervised sessions)	AEx (n=56)	hsCRP ←→ IL-6 ←→	HAM-D17 ↓	NR (non- significant)
					CON(n=59)	hsCRP ←→ IL-6 ←→	HAM-D17 ↓	NR (non- significant)
						Note: No effect of group on HAM-D17 or hsCRP. Does not appear there was a time effect on IL-6. HAMD17 was reduced by 41% and 44% in AEx and CON groups, respectively. hsCRP remained unchanged. Regression analyses revealed no significant relationship between inflammatory markers and change in depressive symptoms.
Rethorst et al., 2013156	DSM-IV Major	Males and females, 18–70y/o, all had been treated with SSRI for 2–6mos prior and were partial or non-responders, not engaged in regular exercise Exclusion: depression due to comorbid psychiatric disorder; additional pharma or psych, history, physical exam or laboratory results indicating significant medical condition, n= 105 (73 completers) 47.5±9.4 y/o ~20% male	Outpatient setting AEx: either LD (4KKW) or HD (16KKW). Subjects self-selected intensity with the goal of meeting weekly energy expenditure through supervised and home-based exercise	12 weeks All sessions: initial sessions were supervised and tapered to one supervised session per week in week 3.	LD–AEx (n=40)	IFN-γ ←→ IL-1β ←→ IL-6 ←→ TNF-α ←→	*IDS-C ↓	rs = −0.19 rs = 0.20 rs = 0.23 rs = −0.04
					HD–AEx (n=33)	IFN-γ ←→ IL-1β ←→ IL-6 ←→ TNF-α ←→	*IDS-C ↓	rs = 0.12 rs = 0.29 rs = 0.15 rs = 0.09
						Note: Moderator analyses indicated that TNF- α above median at baseline predicted greater magnitude reduction in IDS-C. There was a significant, weak correlation between IL-1β and all depression measures for both groups combined. Larger reductions in IL-1β associated with reductions in depression.
Krogh et al., 2014164	DSM-IV-MINI Major	Males and females, 18–60 y/o, HAM-D ≥12 Exclusion: drug use, antidepressant use in past 2mos, receiving psych, contraindications to physical exercise, >1hr of PA/wk, suicidal behavior, current/previous psychotic or manic symptoms, pregnancy n= 79 41.3±12.1 y/o 33%/male	Outpatient setting AEx: 10min warm-up, 30 mins on cycle ergometer (at least 65% of maximal capacity with progression to 80%), and 5min cool-down CON: 10min warm-up at low intensity on stationary bike, 20min program of stretching, 15min of low intensity exercise	12 weeks AEx: 3x/wk/12wks (36 supervised sessions) CON: 3x/wk/12wks (36 supervised sessions)	AEx (n=41)	sBDNF ←→ sVEGF ←→ sIGF-1 ←→ R-HPCvol←→ L-HPC vol ←→	HAM-D17 Δ NR	NR NR NR rs = 0.30 NR
					CON(n=38)	sBDNF ←→ sVEGF ←→ sIGF-1 ←→ R-HPCvol←→ L-HPCvol ←→	HAM-D17 Δ NR	NR NR NR rs = 0.30 NR
						Note: Sub-study of Krogh et al., 2012.51 Right hippocampal volume increased significantly associated with reduction in HAM-D17 independent of group.
Schuch et al., 2014165	DSM-IV-MINI Major	Male and female,, 18–60 y/o, HAM-D ≥25, not involved in any other PA during hospitalization Exclusion: three or more cardiovascular risk factors on PAR-Q, not able to exercise due to medical condition, taking beta blocker medication, psychiatric diagnosis of bipolar, schizophrenia, anorexia, alcohol or drug abuse or dependence n= 50 40.3±NR y/o 24% male	Inpatient setting AEx: warm-up (stretching 4 lower limb muscle groups and 4min treadmill walk), exercise bout included choice of stationary bike, treadmill, or “transport” machine to complete 16.5 kcal/kg body mass/wk (~59% HRR), and cool-down TAU: Pharm and/or ECT and access to OT, but no psych CON: TAU only	Duration dependent of length of stay AEx: 3d/wk (average ~21±5d hospitalized) (Supervised individual sessions) CON: NR with average ~24±6d hospitalized	AEx + TAU (n=15)	sTBARS↓ sBDNF↑	HAM-D Δ NR	NR NR
					CON (n=11)	sTBARS↑ sBDNF↑	HAM-D Δ NR	NR NR
						Note: Significant group by time interaction at discharge for sTBARS. sTBARS was significant lower for AEx + TAU group. Significant time effect on sBDNF. sBDNF was significantly elevated in second week but did not differ by group. No regression analyses performed
Salehi et al., 201661	DSM-IV-MINI Major	Males and females, 25–40 y/o, admitted to inpatient care, BDI ≥30, HAM-D ≥25, no comorbid psychiatric disorders, no systemic disorders such as diabetes, hypertension, hyper- or hypothyroidism Exclusion: history of epilepsy, physical illness, refused ECT n=60 29.7±5.8 y/o 70% male	Inpatient setting Initial 2wk washout period with pharm Pharm: 40mg/d of citalopram AEx: 40–45mins of cycling at 60–75% of VO2max ECT: 1.5 times seizure threshold dose at 1.0ms pulse width	4 weeks AEx: 3xs/wk/4wks (12 supervised individual sessions) ECT: 3xs/wk/4wks (12 supervised individual sessions)	AEx + ECT + Pharm (n=20)	pBDNF↑	HAM-D21↓	r = −.02
					AEx + Pharm (n=20)	pBDNF←→	HAM-D21↓	r = −.02
					ECT + Pharm (n=20)	pBDNF↑	HAM-D21↓	r = −.02
						Note: pBDNF greater at post in ECT and AEx+ ECT compared to AEx. HDRS decreased significantly in all groups with AEx+ECT being significantly lower at post compared to other groups. AEx+ ECT was significantly associated with remission; 76.5% remitted. Correlations provided are associations between post assessments. Correlations of change scores not performed.
Carniero et al., 2017117	ICD-10; psychiatrist confirmed Major, dysthymia	Females, 18–65 y/o, sedentary, physical fitness to endure exercise confirmed by physician, normal ECG Exclusion: psychotic comorbidities, substance or alcohol abuse, receiving additional treatment, pharmacotherapy changes in past 6wks, significant medical constraints, taking beta-blocker medication, n=19 ~50 y/o 100% female	Outpatient setting AEx: 5min warm-up, 30mins of various activities (games, circuit workouts with resistance bands, jump ropes, fitness balls, brisk walking, and dancing) at 65–76% MHR and 5min stretching cool-down Pharm: SSRIs and anxiolytics/hypnotics, if needed, at constant individualized dosages	16 weeks AEx: 3d/wk/16wks (48 supervised group sessions) Pharm: Session information with psychiatrist over 16 wks NR	AEx + Pharm (n=9)	pDA←→ pNA↑ pAD↑ p5-HT↓ pCORT↓	BDI-II↓	NR all
					Pharm (n=10)	pDA↓ pNA↑ pAD←→ p5-HT↑ pCORT↓	BDI-II↑	NR all
						Note: Sub-study of Carniero et al., 2015.59 Only group by time interaction was on dopamine. BDI-II results from previous publication indicate significant reduction in DEP in AEx group. No regression or correlation performed with mechanisms and clinical outcomes. Unclear how any measure mediates depression.
Euteneuer et al., 2017154	DSM-IV-SCID Major	Males and females, 18–65 y/o Exclusion: psychotic comorbidities, neurological illness, substance or alcohol abuse, unstable dose of pharm (change within previous 2wks or planning to change) n=98 37.3±12.2 y/o 51% male	Outpatient setting CBT: 50min session of CBT with clinical psychologist. Ex: Patients provided a manual of exercise activities. Instructed to complete at least 40mins of ‘moderate’ intensity exercise 4xs/wk. Exercise habits reinforced during CBT sessions (CBT+Ex group only). Euthymic activity: Instructed to complete 40mins of pleasurable activities 4xs/wk. Included activities that were enjoyable but did not lead to substantial increase in physical activity. These activities were reinforced during CBT sessions.	16 weeks CBT: 1x/wk/ beginning week 1 (16 individual supervised sessions) Ex: 4xs/wk/beginning week 5. (Encouraged 44 unsupervised sessions) Euthymic activity: 4xs/wk/beginning week 5 (Encouraged 44 unsupervised sessions)	CBT + Ex (n=36)	CRP←→ IL-6↑ IL-10↑	BDI-II↓	NR all
					CBT + Euthymic activity (n=35)	CRP←→ IL-6↑ IL-10←→	BDI-II↓	NR all
					CON (n=30)	CRP←→ IL-6←→ IL-10←→	BDI-II←→	NR all
						Note: MDD patients had significantly higher CRP levels compared to healthy controls. No significant change in CRP amongst any group. Sub sample of subjects with CRP > 1 indicated that Ex significantly reduced CRP levels at 16 weeks. IL-10 significantly increased in CBT+Ex group at 8 and 16 weeks compared to CBT or CON. Both CBT+Ex and CBT had significant reductions in DEP compared to CON so the role of IL-10 in reduction of DEP is unclear.
Kerling et al., 2017166	DSM-IV-SCID Major	Males and females, 18–60 y/o, medical exam confirmed no evidence for previous coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, or angioplasty, no use of beta-blocker or other cardiologic medication Exclusion: BMI ≥ 30, cardiovascular, metabolic, or immune disorder, current substance abuse, schizophrenia, cognitive impairment, bipolar disorder n= 42 ~42 y/o 62% male	Inpatient setting AEx: 45mins at 50% maximal workload achieved during baseline exercise test. Mode consisted of combination of cycle ergometer, treadmill, rower, and crosstrainer TAU: pharm and psych. Light unstructured activities permitted for 20mins (walking, stretching, ball games)	6 weeks AEx: 3d/wk/6wks (18 supervised sessions) TAU: pharm and psych as prescribed. Light activities daily	AEx + TAU (n=22)	sBDNF↑	BDI-II↓ MADRS↓	NR BDI-II n.s.
					TAU (n=20)	sBDNF↓	BDI-II↓ MADRS↓	NR BDI-II n.s.
						Note: Both groups demonstrated significant reductions in DEP as reported in Kerling et al. 201554 (NR here). Group effect but not time effect on BDNF. No relationship reported between change in BDNF and change in DEP
Lavebratt et al., 2017155	DSM-IV-MINI Major, anxiety, comorbid anxiety	Males and females, 18–64 y/o, PHQ-9 >9, Exclusion: severe somatic illness, substance abuse, psychiatric diagnosis requiring specialist treatment (i.e., psychosis) n=116 43±12 y/o 34% male	Outpatient setting Ex: 60mins of light (yoga), moderate (AEx), or vigorous (AEx+REx) TAU: Managed by PCP and included pharm and/or CBT, or no treatment Antidepressant use Light: 8% Moderate: 6% Vigorous: 9%	12 weeks Ex: 3d/wk/12wks (36 supervised group sessions) Light: yoga, stretching, controlled breathing (~54% APMHR) Moderate: ‘intermediate’ level AEx class (~70% APMHR) Vigorous: higher intensity AEx, REx, and balance training class (~76% APMHR)	Light (n=48)	IL-6↓	MADRS↓	β = 0.19
					Moderate (n=36)	IL-6↓	MADRS↓	β = 0.19
					Vigorous (n=32)	IL-6↑	MADRS↓	β = 0.19
						Note: Sub-study of Hallgren et al.70 Subjects appeared to also receive TAU. Changes in IL-6 did not significantly differ between exercise intensities. Regression analyses indicated that: 1) Higher baseline IL-6 level was associated with greater reductions in MADRS; 2) Higher baseline MADRS was associated with greater reductions in IL-6; and 3) there was a significant, positive relationship between change in IL-6 and change in MADRS.
Rahman et al., 2017167	DSM-IV-MINI Major, anxiety, comorbid anxiety	Males and females, ≥18 y/o, PHQ-9 >9, Exclusion: severe somatic illness, substance abuse, psychiatric diagnosis requiring specialist treatment (i.e., psychosis) n=547 (subjects providing sample for BDNF genotyping) 43±12 y/o 27.2% males n=117 (subjects in exercise group that provided pre- and post- samples for BDNF genotyping and assessment of circulating BDNF) age NR sex NR	Outpatient setting Exercise: 60mins of light (yoga), moderate (AEx), or vigorous (AEx+REx) ICBT: Online, self-help manual with weekly interaction with clinician; additional support provided as needed TAU: Managed by PCP and included pharm and/or CBT, or no treatment Antidepressant use Exercise: 33% ICBT: 32% TAU: 26%	12 weeks Exercise: 3d/wk/12wks (36 supervised group sessions) ICBT: Multiple (self-selected) TAU: NR	Exercise (n=197, BDNF SNP) (n=120, circulating BDNF)	BDNF rs6265 SNP (Val66Met) 71% ValVal 29% ValMet mBDNF←→ proBDNF←→	MADRS Δ NR	NR (n.s.) NR (n.s)
					ICBT (n=208, BDNF SNP)	BDNF rs6265 SNP (Val66Met) 69% ValVal 31% ValMet	MADRS Δ NR	NA
					TAU (n=142 BDNF SNP)	BDNF rs6265 SNP (Val66Met) 65% ValVal 35% ValMet	MADRS Δ NR	NA
						Note: Sub-study of Hallgren et al.70 Circulating BDNF only studied in a sub-sample of exercise group. Neither proBDNF nor mBDNF were associated with baseline depression severity or depressive symptom response to exercise. ValMet SNP carriers, without exposure to childhood adversity, were more likely to be responders to exercise. ValMet carriers had higher serum mBDNF at baseline but this was not augmented by exercise.
Gourgouvelis et al., 2018168	DSM-IV- Major and anxiety	Males and females, low-activity levels, comorbid anxiety, BDI-II ≥ 20, medication permitted if taking stable dosage at least 6wks prior to pre-testing and through study duration, experience depressive symptoms ≥ 6mos, no medical contraindications to exercise assessed by PAR-Q Exclusion: Axis I disorder other than anxiety, substance abuse n=16 39.3±7.0y/o 25% male	Outpatient setting CBT: NR Ex: At least 150mins MVPA/wk with AEx and REx sessions. AEx: 1x/wk with progression up to 60mins at 60–80% APMHR REx: 8–12 reps at 95% 10-RM Pharm: Individual stable dose	8 weeks CBT: Group sessions Ex: 3x/wk/8wks (24 individual, supervised sessions; 8 AEx and 16 REx sessions)	CBT + Ex (AEx & REx) + Pharm (n=8)	pBDNF↑ CTHB←→	BDI-II↓	R2 = −.50 CTHB NR
					CBT + Pharm (n=8)	pBDNF←→ CTHB←→	BDI-II↓	R2 = −.50 CTHB NR
						Note: Both groups demonstrated significant reductions in DEP although AEx group had significantly greater reduction in DEP at 8 weeks. Reductions in DEP were significantly correlated with increases in BDNF across groups. Sleep improvements were also significantly associated with increases BDNF (see Rethorst et al. 2015192). Inflammatory markers were measured but >50% were below detection level so not included in analyses.
Szuhany & Otto, 2020139	DSM-V via ADIS-5 Major or persistent	Males and females, 18–65 y/o, sedentary (<2d/wk of 30mins of moderate exercise for previous 3mos) Exclusion: past or current psychotic, schizoaffective, bipolar, anorexia, bulimia, or substance abuse disorders, high suicide risk, not medically stable to exercise as assessed by the PAR-Q, participating in psychosocial treatment or on unstable dose of pharm (no dose changes in the previous 8wks) n=29 ~34y/o 24% male	Outpatient setting BA: 60mins of standard BA treatment (psychoeducation, activity monitoring scheduling activities, role of social support Ex: 150mins of moderate Ex/wk; Ex performed on own w/guidance from therapist. 30min sessions following first 6 BA sessions to enhance adherence Stretching: 150mins/wk. Stretching performed on own w/guidance from therapist. 30min sessions following first 6 BA sessions to enhance adherence	12 weeks BA: 1x/wk for weeks 1–6; Biweekly booster sessions for weeks 7–12 (9 supervised sessions) Ex: Accumulate 150ms/wk/12wks Stretching: Accumulate 150mins/wk/12wks	BA + Ex (n=14)	Resting sBDNF←→ Exercise induced Δ sBDNF↑	MADRS↓ BDI-II↓ MADRS↓ BDI-II↓	r = −0.19 r = 0.25 r = 0.35 r = −0.26
					BA + Stretching (n=15)	Resting sBDNF←→ Exercise induced Δ sBDNF↑	MADRS↓ BDI-II↓ MADRS↓ BDI-II↓	r = −0.19 r = 0.25 r = 0.35 r = −0.26
						Note: Both groups demonstrated significant reductions in DEP at 16wks. Intervention was 12wks, but no testing completed at that point. No effect of group on resting BDNF or exercise induced change in BDNF. No significant relationship between change in resting BDNF or change in exercise induced BDNF and changes in DEP. Report from Szuhany & Otto, 2020193 indicated that patients increased MVPA over the course of the intervention independent of group assignment potentially explaining the lack of group difference on BDNF and/or DEP.
Gerber et al., 2020169	ICD-10 Major, recurrent (1 bipolar patient included)	Males and female, 19–60 y/o, admitted for inpatient care, met ICD-10 criteria (F32, F33, and F31) Exclusion: HAM-D17 <17, BMI >35, comorbid major psychiatric disorder, somatic condition preventing participation in exercise, participation in regular vigorous intensity exercise n=25 38.1±7.0y/o 48% male	Inpatient setting Ex: 40–50mins of stationary cycling at 60–75% APMHR CON: coordination and stretching activities for all major muscle groups TAU: pharm (SSRI, SNRI, and lithium), psych (individual and group)	6 weeks Ex: 3d/wk/6wks (18 sessions) CON: 3d/wk/6wks (18 sessions) Ex and CON sessions supervised and performed individually or with one other patient TAU: as prescribed	Ex + TAU	TSST induced Δ in salCORT←→	BDI↓	r = 0.02
					CO N+ TAU	TSST induced Δ in salCORT←→	BDI↓	r = 0.02
						Note: Significant effect of time on DEP. No group by time interaction. No significant changes in cortisol response to TSST and changes in cortisol response were not associated with changes in DEP.

ADIS= Anxiety and Related Disorders Interview Schedule; AEx = aerobic exercise; APMHR = age predicted maximum heart rate; BA= behavioral activation; BDI = Beck Depression Inventory; BMI = body mass index; CBT = cognitive-behavioral therapy; CON = control; CRP= C-reactive protein; DEP = depression; DSM= Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; ECG = electrocardiogram; ECT= electroconvulsive therapy; Ex = exercise; HAM-D = Hamilton Rating Scale of Depression; HD = high dose (exercise); HPCvol = hippocampal volume; hr(s) = hour(s); HRR = heart rate reserve; hsCRP = high sensitive C-reactive protein; ICBT = internet-based cognitive-behavioral therapy; ICD-10 = International Classification of Diseases, 10^th Revision; IDS-C= Inventory of Depression Symptomatology-clinician rated; IFN-γ= interferon γ; IL-10= interleukin 10; IL-1β= interleukin 1β; IL-6= interleukin 6; KKW= kilocalorie per kilogram body weight per week; L = left; LD = low dose (exercise); MADRS = Montgomery $\dot{\mathrm{A}}\mathrm{sberg}$ Depression Rating Scale; mBDNF = mature brain-derived neurotrophic factor; MDD = major depressive disorder; MDI = Medical Depression Inventory; Met = Methionine; MHR = maximum heart rate; MINI = Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview; mo(s) = month(s); MVPA = moderate to vigorous physical activity; n.s. = nonsignificant; NR = not reported; OT = occupational therapy; p5-HT= plasma serotonin; PA = physical activity; P-AEx = progressive aerobic exercise; PAR-Q = Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire; pBDNF= plasma BDNF; pCORT= plasma cortisol; PCP = primary care physician; pCTHB= plasma cysteine proteinases; pDA= plasma dopamine; pharm = Pharmacotherapy; PHQ- 9 = Patient Health Questionare-9; pNA= plasma noradrenaline; PREx = progressive resistance exercise; proBDNF = precursor brain-derived neurotrophic factor; Psych = psychotherapy; R = right; Relax = relaxation; REx = resistance exercise; RPE = rating of perceived exertion; salCORT= salivary cortisol; sBDNF= serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor; SCID = Structured Clinical Interview of DSM Disorders; sIGF-1= serum insulin-like growth factor; SNP = single nucleotide polymorphism; SSRI = serotonin reuptake inhibitors; sTBARS = serum thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances; sVEGF= vascular endothelial growth factor; TAU = treatment as usual;TNF-α= tumor necrosis factor α; TSST = Trier Social Stress Test; Val = Valine; VO₂max = maximal oxygen uptake; wk(s) = week(s); y/o = years old; 1-RM = 1 repetition maximum; 10-RM = 10 repetition maximum; τ=Kendall’s tau rank correlation coefficient; r_s= spearman’s rank correlation coefficient; Δ= change; β = multiple linear regression beta coefficient; R² = coefficient of determination ; ←→↓↑= general direction of change in outcome measure, not an indication of statistical significance