Table 1.
General characteristics of the cross-sectional study population according to coffee consumption pattern by gender.
| Variables | Men (n = 800) | Women (n = 919) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Non-Coffee Consumer (n = 475) | Black-Coffee Consumer (n = 117) | Instant-Coffee Consumer (n = 66) | Other Coffee Consumer (n = 142) | P | Non-Coffee Consumer (n = 549) | Black-Coffee Consumer (n = 143) | Instant-Coffee Consumer (n = 80) | Other Coffee Consumer (n = 147) | P | |
| Age (years) | 62.34 ± 15.62 | 61.24 ± 15.53 | 63.00 ± 16.28 | 62.44 ± 15.95 | 0.881 | 61.32 ± 14.83 | 62.16 ± 14.75 | 61.31 ± 15.42 | 62.46 ± 14.32 | 0.813 |
| Educational level | ||||||||||
| ~Junior high school | 90 (18.95) | 16 (13.68) | 8 (12.12) | 10 ( 7.04) | 0.016 | 94 (17.12) | 20 (13.99) | 13 (16.25) | 26 (17.69) | 0.943 |
| High school/Secondary specialized school | 262 (55.16) | 62 (52.99) | 39 (59.09) | 94 (66.20) | 322 (58.65) | 83 (58.04) | 49 (61.25) | 85 (57.82) | ||
| College~ | 123 (25.89) | 39 (33.33) | 19 (28.79) | 38 (26.76) | 133 (24.23) | 40 (27.97) | 18 (22.50) | 36 (24.49) | ||
| Marriage | ||||||||||
| Unmarried | 155 (32.63) | 41 (35.04) | 25 (37.88) | 59 (41.55) | 0.233 | 193 (35.15) | 55 (38.46) | 26 (32.50) | 55 (37.41) | 0.359 |
| Married/cohabiting | 289 (60.84) | 63 (53.85) | 35 (53.03) | 74 (52.11) | 319 (58.11) | 85 (59.44) | 51 (63.75) | 82 (55.78) | ||
| Divorced/Separated/ Widowed |
31 ( 6.53) | 13 (11.11) | 6 ( 9.09) | 9 ( 6.34) | 37 ( 6.74) | 3 ( 2.10) | 3 ( 3.75) | 10 ( 6.80) | ||
| Height (cm) | 163.77 ± 8.11 | 164.38 ± 7.59 | 162.91 ± 7.96 | 163.96 ± 7.99 | 0.669 | 158.37 ± 6.39 | 157.68 ± 5.89 | 158.31 ± 6.08 | 157.80 ± 6.85 | 0.569 |
| Weight (kg) | 61.03 ± 11.05 | 63.90 ± 11.11 | 63.74 ± 10.41 | 62.08 ± 9.53 | 0.034 | 55.69 ± 10.29 | 56.85 ± 8.47 | 56.36 ± 9.22 | 57.47 ± 8.76 | 0.167 |
| Body mass index | 22.68 ± 3.37 | 23.59 ± 3.40 | 24.01 ± 3.35 | 23.07 ± 2.97 | 0.004 | 22.18 ± 3.82 | 22.89 ± 3.43 | 22.45 ± 3.18 | 23.09 ± 3.43 | 0.020 |
| Body weight status | ||||||||||
| Underweight | 36 ( 7.58) | 8 ( 6.84) | 2 ( 3.03) | 11 ( 7.75) | 0.024 | 86 (15.66) | 12 ( 8.39) | 4 ( 5.00) | 3 ( 2.05) | <0.001 |
| Normal | 234 (49.26) | 45 (38.46) | 23 (34.85) | 61 (42.96) | 265 (48.27) | 66 (46.15) | 44 (55.00) | 86 (58.90) | ||
| Overweight | 117 (24.63) | 31 (26.50) | 16 (24.24) | 33 (23.24) | 102 (18.58) | 34 (23.78) | 15 (18.75) | 24 (16.44) | ||
| Obese | 88 (18.53) | 33 (28.21) | 25 (37.88) | 37 (26.06) | 96 (17.49) | 31 (21.68) | 17 (21.25) | 33 (22.60) | ||
| Current smoking status | ||||||||||
| Yes | 223 (46.95) | 59 (50.43) | 26 (39.39) | 70 (49.30) | 0.500 | 236 (42.99) | 67 (46.85) | 34 (42.50) | 71 (48.30) | 0.612 |
| No | 252 (53.05) | 58 (49.57) | 40 (60.61) | 72 (50.70) | 313 (57.01) | 76 (53.15) | 46 (57.50) | 76 (51.70) | ||
| Current alcohol status | ||||||||||
| Yes | 216 (45.47) | 69 (58.97) | 37 (56.06) | 74 (52.11) | 0.032 | 247 (44.99) | 71 (49.65) | 35 (43.75) | 72 (48.98) | 0.647 |
| No | 259 (54.53) | 48 (41.03) | 29 (43.94) | 68 (47.89) | 302 (55.01) | 72 (50.35) | 45 (56.25) | 75 (51.02) | ||
| Breakfast habit | ||||||||||
| No | 24 ( 5.05) | 6 ( 5.13) | 1 ( 1.52) | 8 ( 5.63) | 0.661 | 29 ( 5.28) | 6 ( 4.20) | 3 ( 3.75) | 1 ( 0.68) | 0.334 |
| 1-3 times/week | 146 (30.74) | 46 (39.32) | 20 (30.30) | 44 (30.99) | 166 (30.24) | 44 (30.77) | 27 (33.75) | 45 (30.61) | ||
| 4-5 times/week | 159 (33.47) | 32 (27.35) | 25 (37.88) | 42 (29.58) | 179 (32.60) | 53 (37.06) | 20 (25.00) | 51 (34.69) | ||
| Every day | 146 (30.74) | 33 (28.21) | 20 (30.30) | 48 (33.80) | 175 (31.88) | 40 (27.97) | 30 (37.50) | 50 (34.01) | ||
| Physical activity | ||||||||||
| <0.5 h/day | 185 (38.95) | 44 (37.61) | 23 (34.85) | 66 (46.48) | 0.025 | 195 (35.52) | 57 (39.86) | 25 (31.25) | 55 (37.41) | 0.258 |
| 0.5-1 h/day | 139 (29.26) | 46 (39.32) | 19 (28.79) | 50 (35.21) | 186 (33.88) | 36 (25.17) | 36 (45.00) | 54 (36.73) | ||
| 1-2 h/day | 96 (20.21) | 19 (16.24) | 18 (27.27) | 13 ( 9.15) | 101 (18.40) | 31 (21.68) | 12 (15.00) | 21 (14.29) | ||
| ≥2 h/day | 55 (11.58) | 8 ( 6.84) | 6 ( 9.09) | 13 ( 9.15) | 67 (12.20) | 19 (13.29) | 7 ( 8.75) | 17 (11.56) | ||
| Sitting time | ||||||||||
| <6 h/day | 127 (26.74) | 31 (26.50) | 14 (21.21) | 32 (22.54) | 0.679 | 134 (24.41) | 40 (27.97) | 17 (21.25) | 37 (25.17) | 0.650 |
| 6-8 h/day | 182 (38.32) | 50 (42.74) | 28 (42.42) | 48 (33.80) | 205 (37.34) | 48 (33.57) | 33 (41.25) | 51 (34.69) | ||
| 8-10 h/day | 98 (20.63) | 20 (17.09) | 14 (21.21) | 38 (26.76) | 144 (26.23) | 32 (22.38) | 22 (27.50) | 34 (23.13) | ||
| ≥10 h/day | 68 (14.32) | 16 (13.68) | 10 (15.15) | 24 (16.90) | 66 (12.02) | 23 (16.08) | 8 (10.00) | 25 (17.01) | ||
| Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 134.89 ± 20.89 | 137.80 ± 19.39 | 131.80 ± 20.51 | 135.68 ± 20.19 | 0.257 | 134.92 ± 22.24 | 128.54 ± 20.29 | 131.69 ± 22.81 | 135.09 ± 22.47 | 0.008 |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 86.32 ± 13.35 | 87.13 ± 12.80 | 85.58 ± 14.68 | 85.51 ± 11.77 | 0.742 | 85.13 ± 13.51 | 82.17 ± 14.12 | 82.96 ± 14.67 | 84.62 ± 13.64 | 0.119 |
| Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 1.64 ± 0.51 | 1.53 ± 0.49 | 1.69 ± 0.47 | 1.64 ± 0.50 | 0.141 | 1.65 ± 0.51 | 1.71 ± 0.50 | 1.58 ± 0.51 | 1.63 ± 0.51 | 0.288 |
| High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (mmol/L) | 1.25 ± 0.24 | 1.29 ± 0.30 | 1.21 ± 0.23 | 1.26 ± 0.27 | 0.304 | 1.30 ± 0.28 | 1.28 ± 0.24 | 1.29 ± 0.26 | 1.29 ± 0.25 | 0.811 |
| Fasting blood glucose (mmol/L) | 5.72 ± 0.46 | 6.01 ± 0.47 | 6.02 ± 0.45 | 5.99 ± 0.47 | <0.001 | 5.73 ± 0.48 | 6.02 ± 0.42 | 6.00 ± 0.51 | 6.12 ± 0.53 | <0.001 |
| Blood glucose two hours after meals (mmol/L) | 9.11 ± 0.64 | 9.10 ± 0.66 | 8.92 ± 0.63 | 9.07 ± 0.64 | 0.146 | 9.05 ± 0.68 | 9.09 ± 0.67 | 9.06 ± 0.67 | 9.20 ± 0.69 | 0.115 |
P values were calculated by generalized linear model for continuous variables and χ2 test for categorical variables. Underweight (BMI < 18.5 kg/m2); normal (BMI ≥ 18.5 and < 23 kg/m2); overweight (BMI ≥ 23 and < 25 kg/m2); obese (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2).