Table 3.
Unstandardized adjusted β coefficients (SEMs) a for each item of the Japanese 19-item version of the Parenting Stress Index Short Form according to mode of delivery and timing of assessment in the postpartum period.
| Item | Factor | Effect | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Main | Interaction | |||||||||
| Cesarean section | Timing | Cesarean section × Timing | ||||||||
| Yes | No | 2.5 y | 3.5 y | 1.5 y | Yes × 2.5 y | Yes × 3.5 y | Others | |||
| 1 | PD | I enjoy being a parent | 0.007 (0.007) | — | 0.078 (0.022) | 0.159 (0.023) | — | 0.003 (0.007) | −0.005 (0.007) | — |
| 2 | PD | When caring for my child is difficult, I resort to asking for help or advice | 0.005 (0.008) | — | 0.020 (0.026) | 0.068 (0.027) | — | −0.010 (0.008) | −0.008 (0.008) | — |
| 3 | DC | My child is active to the extent of overwhelming me | 0.038 (0.011) | — | 0.099 (0.035) | 0.037 (0.037) | — | −0.013 (0.011) | −0.017 (0.012) | — |
| 4 | DC | My child has difficulty focusing attention | 0.026 (0.009) | — | 0.020 (0.032) | −0.028 (0.034) | — | 0.005 (0.010) | −0.003 (0.011) | — |
| 5 | UI | My child rarely does things that make me feel good | 0.025 (0.006) | — | 0.017 (0.022) | 0.050 (0.023) | — | −0.010 (0.007) | −0.012 (0.007) | — |
| 6 | DC | My child cries or fusses rather often | 0.028 (0.009) | — | 0.021 (0.033) | −0.078 (0.034) | — | −0.018 (0.010) | −0.018 (0.010) | — |
| 7 | UI | My child does not smile very much, unlike most children | 0.006 (0.005) | — | −0.011 (0.016) | −0.039 (0.017) | — | 0.004 (0.005) | −0.002 (0.005) | — |
| 8 | DC | My child does some things that bother me a lot | 0.011 (0.011) | — | 0.041 (0.039) | −0.012 (0.040) | — | 0.001 (0.012) | −0.001 (0.013) | — |
| 9 | DC | My child is easily upset by small things | 0.011 (0.011) | — | −0.007 (0.037) | −0.074 (0.039) | — | 0.002 (0.011) | −0.017 (0.012) | — |
| 10 | DC | My child imposes demands on me more than most children | 0.027 (0.010) | — | 0.145 (0.033) | 0.126 (0.037) | — | −0.001 (0.010) | 0.009 (0.011) | — |
| 11 | DC | My child is always attached to me | 0.035 (0.011) | — | −0.213 (0.037) | −0.514 (0.040) | — | 0.007 (0.012) | 0.002 (0.012) | — |
| 12 | PD | I do not feel able to handle things very well | 0.007 (0.010) | — | 0.081 (0.031) | 0.026 (0.033) | — | −0.005 (0.009) | −0.014 (0.010) | — |
| 13 | PD | Since giving birth to my child, I feel unable to do most of the things I like to do | 0.004 (0.010) | — | −0.065 (0.032) | −0.182 (0.033) | — | −0.005 (0.010) | 0.002 (0.010) | — |
| 14 | PD | I feel that it is my fault every time my child does something wrong | −0.002 (0.009) | — | 0.065 (0.030) | 0.046 (0.031) | — | −0.012 (0.009) | −0.016 (0.010) | — |
| 15 | SP | My spouse does not give me as much help as I expected | −0.007 (0.011) | — | 0.041 (0.032) | −0.020 (0.036) | — | −0.001 (0.010) | −0.008 (0.010) | — |
| 16 | SP | Having a child has created more problems with my spouse | −0.002 (0.011) | — | −0.007 (0.034) | −0.085 (0.036) | — | −0.009 (0.010) | −0.003 (0.011) | — |
| 17 | PD | I feel alone with no friends | −0.004 (0.009) | — | 0.012 (0.026) | −0.023 (0.027) | — | 0.007 (0.008) | −0.009 (0.008) | — |
| 18 | PD | I have been experiencing more illness, aches, and pains over the past 6 months | 0.036 (0.010) | — | 0.148 (0.037) | 0.047 (0.038) | — | −0.008 (0.011) | −0.016 (0.012) | — |
| 19 | PD | I am unable to enjoy things as I used to | 0.015 (0.008) | — | 0.088 (0.028) | 0.044 (0.030) | — | 0.003 (0.009) | −0.005 (0.009) | — |
Note: Boldface type indicates significance, defined as the 95% confidence interval not crossing the reference (=0.00). “—” represents reference. Others include Yes × 1.5 y, No × 1.5 y, No × 2.5 y, and No × 3.5 y.
Abbreviations: DC, difficult child; PD, parental distress; SEM, standard error of the mean; SP, spouse; UI, unused item not belonging to any factor.
Adjusted for maternal age, body mass index, parity, gestational age, pregnancy complication, obstetric complication marital status, highest education level, employment status, annual household income, smoking status, alcohol intake, regular physical activity, experience of stressful event, negative attitude toward pregnancy, emotional social support, psychological distress, and area of residence.