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. 2023 Feb 27;13:3330. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-30016-0

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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E-liquid increases anchorage-independent cell growth and promotes tumor migration and invasion in OSCC cells. (A) E-liquid treatment increased the number and size of spheroid formation in semisolid media. CAL27, HSC3 and AT84 cell lines were able to survive after E-liquid treatment and exhibited anchorage-independent growth (B) Wound healing assays show that e-liquid stimulation with 0.1% or 1% nicotine can promote migration and invasion of OSCC quiescent cells. Cells treated with media containing 10% FBS were used as the positive control for the assay. E-liquid induced the migration and invasion of the cells in a dose-dependent manner. (C) E-liquid was able to potently promote invasion of OSCC cells at a concentration of 0.1% and 1% as seen in a Boyden-chamber assay. E-liquid induced the migration and invasion of the cells in a dose-dependent manner. *P < 0.0001.