Table 1.

Summary of the findings.

Author, Year, Country	Study focus	Study design	Sample characteristic	VR set-up	VR type	VR exposure (training or intervention)
Chiang et. al., 202121 Taiwan	Medical education training	Pre–post study	N = 60 (physicians, nurses, therapists)	VR HMD	Immersive	2 h (120 min)
Hood et al., 202117 Australia	Medical education training	Pilot study	N = 104 (specialists, nurses, radiographers)	VR HMD	Immersive	21 min
Adhikari et al., 202118 UK	Medical education training	Mixed-methods feasibility study	N = 19 (nursing students)	VR headset	Immersive	20∼30 min
Andersen et al., 202122 Denmark	Medical education training	Explorative pilot study as an RCT	N = 19 (medical students)	VR HMD, controllers	Immersive	20 min
Amini et al., 202137 USA	Medical education training	Quasi-experimental (pilot study)	N = 27 (dental residents, faculty)	VR headset	Immersive	30 min
Gunn et al., 202119 Australia	Medical education training	Qualitative study	N = 66 (UG RT, MI students)	VR headset, controllers	Immersive	N/A
Mallik et al., 202120 UK	Medical education training	Pilot study	N = 39 (junior doctors)	VR headset	Immersive	15 min
Giordano et al., 202038 USA	Medical education training	Quasi-experimental pre-post test pilot study	N = 50 (UG nursing science students)	Mobile VR headset (cardboard)	Immersive	20 min
Slater et al., 201924 UK	Medical education training	Qualitative study	N = 18 (carers, befrienders, senior management)	Simulation glasses, headphones, sensor gloves	Immersive	N/A
Hoogenes et al., 201723 Canada	Medical education training	Randomized comparison study	N = 39 (junior, senior medical trainees, surgical students)	Robotic dVSSS, dV-T simulator platform	Immersive	Average 2.5 h (150 min)
Chang et al., 20226 Taiwan	Medical education training	RCT	N = 23 (medical students)	3D VR glasses, motion sensor, 3D VR controller (CAVE VR system)	Immersive	3 sessions/week for 2 weeks and each session was for 2 h (total 12 h or 720 min)
Mrakic-Sposta et al., 201839 Italy	Clinical care	Pilot study	N = 10 (MCI patients); mean age 73.3 years	Cycle-ergometer, smart garment, finger touch projector, PlayStation controller	Immersive	3 sessions/week for 6 weeks (total 18 sessions) and each session was 40∼45 min
Thapa et al., 202030 Korea	Clinical care	RCT	N = 68 (MCI patients); mean age 72.5 years	VR headset, hand controllers	Immersive	3 sessions/week for 8 weeks; total duration was 100 min (three 20-min VR training sessions, and three 10-min eye relaxation)
De Luca et al., 201731 Italy	Clinical care	Pilot study	N = 12 (post-stroke patients); mean age 40 years	BTs-nirvana	Semi-immersive	3 sessions/week for 8 weeks; each session lasted 45 min
Bergmann et al., 201829 Germany	Clinical care	Pilot RCT (2 parallel groups)	N = 20 (subacute stroke patients); mean age 64 years	Display screens, robotic-assisted devices	Semi-immersive	12 sessions (for 4 weeks)
Lee et al., 202027 Korea	Clinical care	RCT	N = 22 (sub-acute stroke patients); mean age 58.18 years	Cognitive rehabilitation training system (Moto Cog)	Semi-immersive	5 sessions/week for 4 weeks; each session was 30 min/day
Al-Sharman et al., 201932 Jordan	Clinical care	Observational cross-sectional study	N = 40; (20 MS patients and 20 controls); mean age 34.7 years	Nintendo Wii Plus, balance board, LCD monitor	Non-immersive VR	6 weeks; every day 10-min game session
Pot-Kolder et al., 201825 Netherlands	Clinical care	RCT	N = 116 (patients suffering from a psychotic disorder)	HMD	Immersive	Total 16 sessions over 8–12 weeks; session lasted 1 h, 40 min
Falconer et al., 201743 UK	Clinical care	Mixed-methods, feasibility and acceptability study	N = 15 (patients with BPD); mean age 31.2 years	Desktop, mouse, keyboard	Non-immersive VR	45–60 min for 2–3 days per week; for whole treatment
Yeh et al., 201733 Taiwan	Clinical care	Feasibility study	N = 16 (stroke patients)	3D game engine unity™	Semi-immersive	3 sessions/week for 8 weeks; each session was 30 min
Buccellato et al., 202042 US	Clinical care	Feasibility trial and pilot study	N = 21 (participants with ABI); mean age 41 years	Computer and monitor, wireless headphones, remote server, bimanual game controllers	Semi-immersive	6 weeks
Mekbib et al., 202134 China	Clinical care	Single blind, randomized, parallel-group study	N = 23 (stroke patients); mean age 56.5 years	HMD, tracking device, link box	Immersive	4 sessions/week for 2 weeks; each session for 1 h
Jonsdottir et al., 202135 Italy	Clinical care	Pilot study	N = 34 (chronic stroke patients); mean age 55 years	Television screen, motion sensors	Semi-immersive	Clinic HEAD: 3 sessions/week for 4 weeks, each 45 min (total 12 sessions) and Home HEAD: 5 sessions/week for 12 weeks (total 60 sessions)
Beverly et al., 202226 USA	Clinical care	Pilot study	N = 90 (HCPs suffering from stress); mean age 29.5 years	HMD	Immersive	3-min 360° Cine-VR session
Mosso Vázquez et al., 201840 Mexico	Clinical care	Pilot study (randomized)	N = 44 (patients needing lipoma resection)	VR 3D glasses, HMD, phone (with Google Cardboard headset)	Immersive	Session lasted for 30 min after surgery
Ryu et al., 201828 Korea	Clinical care	RCT	N = 69; (undergoing general anesthesia/elective surgery); mean age 7 years	HMD, saturation monitor, hand and finger motion controller, leap motion controller	Immersive	Session was for 5 min
Osmanlliu et al., 202041 Canada	Clinical care	Pilot RCT	N = 62 (undergoing IV procedure); mean age 11.7 years	HMD	Immersive	Throughout the IV procedure
Karaman et al., 202116 Turkey	Clinical care	RCT	N = 60 (during breast biopsy); mean age 43.5 years	Smartphone, 3D VR Player app, VR Box Glasses	Immersive	Throughout the breast biopsy

UG, undergraduate; RT, radiotherapy; MI, medical imaging; RCT, randomized controlled trial; dVSSS,da Vinci surgical skills simulator; dVT,da Vinci trainer; CAVE, Cave automatic virtual environment; MCI, mild cognitive impairment; MS, multiple sclerosis; BPD, borderline personality disorder; ABI, acquired brain injury; HCPs, healthcare professionals; HEAD, Human Empowerment Aging and Disability; IV, intravenous.