TABLE 2.
Examples of useful gain-of-function experiments
| Goal/result | Microbe | Gain-of-Function | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Insect control | Baculovirus | Scorpion neurotoxin | (18) |
| Solid tumor therapy | Vaccinia | GM-CSF Expression | (19)a |
| Melanoma therapy | Herpes Simplex | GM-CSF Expression | (20) |
| COVID-19 vaccine | Adenovirus type 26 | Expression of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein | (21)a |
| Repair Cardiac pacemaker | Adenovirus | Expression of sinoatrial node transcription factor | (22) |
| Treatment of bacterial infectious diseases | Bacteriophages | Expression of various payloads to enhance activity | (23) |
| Treating Citrus tree greening disease | Citrus tristeza virus | Spinach Defensin expression | (24) |
| Enhanced Lithium Batteries | E4 and M13 bacteriophage | Modified coat protein for carbon nanotube and cation binding | (25) |
| Rabbit control through immunocontraception | Myxoma virus | Expression of rabbit zona pellucida glycoproteins | (26)b |
| Mouse control through immunocontraception | Ectromelia | Expression of mouse zona pellucida glycoproteins | (27)b |
| Faster computers | M13 bacteriophage | Increased electrical conductance | (28) |
| Established that H5N1 has capacity for mammalian transmissibility | H5N1 | Mutations leading to mammalian transmission | (29, 30) |
| Established danger from bat SARS-like coronavirus to humans | SARS-CoV | Bat coronavirus spike protein | (31) |
| Drought and salt resistance in plants | Arabidopsis | Over expression of vacuolar H+-ATPase | (32) |
| Resistance to dengue virus to reduce transmission | Mosquitoes | Transgenic expression of antibody to dengue virus | (33) |
| Resistance to freezing | Many species from plant to animals | Expression of anti-freeze proteins | (34) |
| Increase nitrogen fixation to reduce fertilizer need | Klebsiella variicola | 122-fold increase in nitrogen fixation genes | (35) |
| Develop a new vaccine against cryptococcosis | Cryptococcus neoformans | Expression of gamma- interferon | (36) |
| Hormones for human therapy (e.g. insulin) | E. coli | Synthesis of human hormone (e.g. insulin) | (37) |
| Enzymes for food prepn such as pectinases for improved juice production | Yeast species | Enzyme expression for industrial use | (38) |
| CAR T cells | Lentivirus | Cancer immunotherapy | (39) |
| Dengue vaccine | Dengue/yellow fever virus | Recombinant DNA technology replaces genetic sequences in the yellow fever vaccine with dengue virus sequences | (40)b |
a
FDA approved product.
b
Experiments done in viruses that classify as pathogens with pandemic potential.