TABLE 2.
Multivariate adjusted odds ratios (OR) and rate ratios (RR) from multilevel zero-inflated negative binomial regression for the count of psychological distress symptoms: depressed, nervous, trouble sleeping, and lonely (N = 44,841) (Survey for Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe, First COVID-19 wave, June-August 2020, 27 European Countries).
| Fixed effects: Psychological distress | Odds ratio a (95% CI) | P-value | Rate ratio b (95%CI) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Female | 1.90 (1.43–2.52) | <0.001 | 1.24 (1.18–1.32) | <0.001 |
| Age group | ||||
| <60 | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- |
| 60–69 | 1.15 (0.94–1.41) | 0.174 | 0.97 (0.93–1.01) | 0.118 |
| 70–71 | 1.26 (1.01–1.58) | 0.044 | 0.98 (0.94–1.03) | 0.448 |
| 80+ | 2.00 (1.12–3.59) | 0.020 | 1.00 (0.94–1.07) | 0.889 |
| P-value for trend | 0.001 | 0.306 | ||
| Education level | ||||
| High | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- |
| Middle | 1.07 (0.93–1.23) | 0.325 | 1.05 (1.01–1.10) | 0.024 |
| Low | 1.23 (1.08–1.41) | 0.002 | 1.13 (1.06–1.21) | <0.001 |
| P-value for trend | 0.002 | <0.001 | ||
| Having a partner | 0.49 (0.27–0.87) | 0.015 | 0.93 (0.87–0.99) | 0.016 |
| Living alone | 1.65 (0.81–3.35) | 0.167 | 1.08 (1.04–1.13) | <0.001 |
| Multimorbidity | 1.70 (1.17–2.48) | 0.006 | 1.18 (1.13–1.23) | <0.001 |
| Worsening health during pandemic c | 8.28 (0.54–127.51) | 0.13 | 1.56 (1.42–1.72) | <0.001 |
| Lost job due to Covid | 1.23 (0.96–1.58) | 0.098 | 1.03 (0.97–1.09) | 0.398 |
| Someone hospitalised from Covid | 1.33 (1.06–1.67) | 0.014 | 1.03 (0.94–1.13) | 0.54 |
| Someone died from Covid | 1.21 (0.84–1.74) | 0.303 | 1.06 (0.99–1.14) | 0.088 |
| Frequency of social contact d | ||||
| Every day | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- |
| Several times a week | 1.11 (1.00–1.23) | 0.042 | 1.04 (1.00–1.08) | 0.058 |
| Once a week | 1.28 (1.06–1.53) | 0.009 | 1.06 (1.01–1.10) | 0.007 |
| Less often | 1.34 (1.11–1.62) | 0.002 | 1.09 (1.04–1.13) | <0.001 |
| P-value for trend | 0.005 | <0.001 | ||
| Country-level | ||||
| Covid deaths per million (/100) | 0.99 (0.96–1.02) | 0.383 | 1.00 (0.99–1.02) | 0.644 |
| Stringency index (/10) | 1.04 (0.81–1.33) | 0.755 | 1.08 (1.01–1.15) | 0.031 |
| GDP per capita ($ PPP) e (/10,000) | 0.99 (0.91–1.07) | 0.74 | 0.97 (0.93–1.02) | 0.216 |
| GINI e (/10) | 1.08 (0.85–1.37) | 0.528 | 1.06 (0.97–1.17) | 0.201 |
a
Odds of having at least one symptom.
b
Incidence rate ratio of having one more symptom.
c
Self-perceived health.
d
Including electronic contact.
e
Grand-mean cantered.