TABLE 3.
Multivariate adjusted odds ratios (OR) for multilevel binary logistic regressions about worsening of four distress symptoms (depressed, nervous, trouble sleeping, and lonely) during the first wave of the Sars-Cov-2 pandemic (Survey for Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe, First COVID-19 wave, June-August 2020, 27 European Countries).
| Fixed effects | More depressed than before the pandemic N = 11,800 | More nervous than before the pandemic N = 13,755 | More trouble sleeping than before the pandemic N = 12,897 | Lonelier than before the pandemic N = 13,001 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | P>|z| | OR (95% CI) | P>|z| | OR (95% CI) | P>|z| | OR (95% CI) | P>|z| | |
| Female sex | 1.48 (1.30–1.69) | <0.001 | 1.31 (1.17–1.48) | <0.001 | 1.09 (0.97–1.23) | 0.139 | 1.59 (1.41–1.81) | <0.001 |
| Age group <60 | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- |
| 61–70 | 0.87 (0.71–1.06) | 0.169 | 0.86 (0.71–1.03) | 0.109 | 0.70 (0.58–0.84) | <0.001 | 1.23 (1.00–1.50) | 0.046 |
| 71–80 | 0.68 (0.55–0.85) | 0.001 | 0.72 (0.59–0.87) | 0.001 | 0.55 (0.45–0.67) | <0.001 | 1.13 (0.92–1.39) | 0.254 |
| 80+ | 0.55 (0.43–0.69) | <0.001 | 0.46 (0.36–0.58) | <0.001 | 0.35 (0.28–0.45) | <0.001 | 1.08 (0.86–1.36) | 0.51 |
| P-value for trend | *<0.001 | *<0.001 | *<0.001 | *0.829 | ||||
| Education level | ||||||||
| Tertiary | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- |
| Secondary | 1.11 (0.96–1.29) | 0.155 | 1.34 (1.16–1.55) | <0.001 | 1.18 (1.02–1.36) | 0.024 | 1.09 (0.95–1.26) | 0.214 |
| Primary | 1.19 (0.99–1.43) | 0.065 | 1.53 (1.28–1.82) | <0.001 | 1.22 (1.03–1.45) | 0.020 | 1.16 (0.98–1.38) | 0.089 |
| P-value for trend | *0.053 | *<0.001 | *0.013 | *0.067 | ||||
| Having a partner | 1.65 (1.31–2.07) | <0.001 | 1.37 (1.09–1.71) | 0.007 | 0.95 (0.76–1.18) | 0.641 | 1.81 (1.45–2.25) | <0.001 |
| Living alone in the household | 1.00 (0.80–1.27) | 0.971 | 1.26 (1.00–1.61) | 0.054 | 0.95 (0.75–1.19) | 0.632 | 1.34 (1.08–1.66) | 0.008 |
| Multimorbidity | 0.92 (0.80–1.07) | 0.295 | 0.84 (0.73–0.97) | 0.018 | 1.05 (0.91–1.21) | 0.495 | 1.05 (0.91–1.21) | 0.515 |
| Worsening health during pandemic a | 3.73 (3.09–4.50) | <0.001 | 2.43 (2.06–2.88) | <0.001 | 4.57 (3.80–5.49) | <0.001 | 3.54 (2.95–4.25) | <0.001 |
| Lost job due to Covid | 2.79 (1.92–4.07) | <0.001 | 2.06 (1.49–2.85) | <0.001 | 1.79 (1.33–2.40) | <0.001 | 1.64 (1.18–2.27) | 0.003 |
| Someone hospitalized with Covid | 1.39 (0.95–2.02) | 0.088 | 1.74 (1.21–2.51) | 0.003 | 1.30 (0.94–1.79) | 0.113 | 1.41 (1.00–2.01) | 0.053 |
| Someone died from Covid | 1.54 (1.01–2.35) | 0.044 | 1.13 (0.76–1.68) | 0.553 | 1.55 (1.07–2.25) | 0.021 | 1.46 (0.98–2.18) | 0.066 |
| Frequency of social contact b | ||||||||
| Every day | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- | -ref- |
| Several times a week | 1.35 (1.12–1.62) | 0.002 | 1.17 (0.98–1.39) | 0.087 | 1.12 (0.94–1.33) | 0.198 | 1.42 (1.18–1.70) | <0.001 |
| About once a week | 1.21 (1.00–1.47) | 0.047 | 1.09 (0.91–1.31) | 0.356 | 1.03 (0.86–1.24) | 0.726 | 1.80 (1.49–2.18) | <0.001 |
| Less often | 1.42 (1.21–1.68) | <0.001 | 1.34 (1.14–1.57) | <0.001 | 1.33 (1.14–1.55) | <0.001 | 1.94 (1.64–2.29) | <0.001 |
| P-value for trend | *<0.001 | *<0.001 | *<0.001 | *<0.001 | ||||
| Country-level variables | ||||||||
| Covid deaths per million c (/100) | 1.19 (1.09–1.30) | <0.001 | 1.15 (1.03–1.28) | 0.011 | 1.19 (1.08–1.32) | 0.001 | 1.14 (1.01–1.28) | 0.028 |
| Stringency index c (/10) | 1.29 (0.93–1.78) | 0.129 | 1.11 (0.76–1.62) | 0.600 | 1.39 (0.97–1.99) | 0.069 | 1.30 (0.87–1.96) | 0.206 |
| GDP per capita ($ PPP) c (/10,000) | 1.14 (1.01–1.29) | 0.037 | 1.19 (1.02–1.37) | 0.022 | 0.98 (0.85–1.12) | 0.768 | 1.25 (1.07–1.47) | 0.005 |
| GINI c (/10) | 1.56 (0.95–2.55) | 0.081 | 1.31 (0.73–2.34) | 0.363 | 1.13 (0.66–1.93) | 0.667 | 0.93 (0.50–1.73) | 0.829 |
| Intercept (log odds) | 0.02 (0.00–0.27) | 0.003 | 0.17 (0.01–2.92) | 0.220 | 0.02 (0.00–0.32) | 0.005 | 0.01 (0.00–0.17) | 0.002 |
a
Self-perceived health.
b
Including electronic contact.
c
Grand-mean centred.