Table 2.
Internal mechanisms underlying regeneration
| Internal factors | Regeneration process | Species and tissues | Regulatory network | References | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Signaling pathways | ROS and MAPK | wound healing, regenerative growth | D. melanogaster: wing disc; A. ypsilon: wing disc | MAPK signalings can be activated by ROS | Bergantiños et al. 2010; Bosch et al. 2005; Mattila et al. 2005; Xu et al. 2021 |
| ECM | wound healing, blastema formation | D. melanogaster: leg disc; T. castaneum: larval leg | Mmps are induced by JNK signaling | McClure et al. 2008; Mitten et al. 2012 | |
| JAK/STAT | blastema cell proliferation | D. melanogaster: wing disc; G. bimaculatus: nymphal leg | Induced by Toll-2 and ROS/JNK/P38/Upd cascade | Bando et al. 2013; La Fortezza et al. 2016; Santabárbara-Ruiz et al. 2015); Bando et al. 2022 | |
| TGF-β | blastema formation and patterning | G. bimaculatus: nymphal leg; P. americana: nymphal leg | Interacts with Dachsous/Fat signaling and dac gene | Mito et al. 2002; Ishimaru et al. 2018; Li et al. 2018 | |
| Hippo | blastema cell proliferation | D. melanogaster: wing disc; G. bimaculatus: nymphal leg | Activated by JNK signaling and Dachsous/Fat signaling | Grusche et al. 2011; Sun and Irvine 2011; Bando et al. 2018; Bando et al. 2009 | |
| Wg/Wnt | initiation and patterning | D. melanogaster: wing and eye discs; T. castaneum: larval leg, antenna, maxilla; G. bimaculatus: nymphal leg | Activated by JNK signaling | Schubiger et al. 2010; Smith-Bolton et al. 2009; Sustar et al. 2011; Shah et al. 2011; Nakamura et al. 2008a, b; Nakamura et al. 2007 | |
| Hedgehog | patterning and regenerative growth | D. melanogaster: leg disc; H. axyridis: larval leg | dpp, wg, rn, dac and Dll are regulated by Hh and Lrp2 | Gibson and Schubiger 1999; Mito et al. 2002; Nakamura et al. 2008a, b; Zhou et al. 2021 | |
| Notch | blastema cell proliferation | D. melanogaster: wing disc | / | Blanco et al. 2010 | |
| EGFR | patterning | G. bimaculatus: nymphal leg | Downstream of Wg/Wnt signaling and regulates al and dac | Nakamura et al. 2008a, b | |
| Histone modifications (H3K27me3) | E(z) | patterning (prevent deformities) | G. bimaculatus: nymphal leg; T. castaneum: larval leg | Suppress dac expression | Hamada et al. 2015; Chou et al. 2019 |
| Utx | patterning (joint formation) | G. bimaculatus: nymphal leg | Promote Egfr expression | Hamada et al. 2015 | |