Table 2.
Studies on overdose (OD) response devices (N=10).
| Author, year | Intervention | Focus | Device | Theme |
| Marcu et al [34], 2020 | Smartphone app to connect those who witness an OD with volunteer responders | Piloting a smart app to connect potential responders with each other; UnityPhilly is intended to create a network of people who use drugs as well as other members of the local community who report that they have not had any nonmedical opioid use | Smartphone OD response app (UnityPhilly) | Feasibility |
| Tukel et al [30], 2020 | Drones for naloxone delivery | Comparing time required for a drone carrying naloxone to traverse various distances with the time required for ambulances to traverse similar distances while responding to the scene of actual or suspected opioid ODs | Modified DJIa “Inspire 2” drone to carry naloxone | Effectiveness of tool |
| Khalemsky and Schwartz [37], 2017 | Responder app community response based on geolocation app | Simulation of different emergency responses, among which was naloxone provision for OD; comparing a simulation of time to respond based on real-world data of community vs EMSb response based on different parameters and their probability | Hypothetical smartphone OD response | Effectiveness; simulation of emergency response community effectiveness compared with EMS |
| Ataiants et al [29], 2021 | Smartphone app to connect those who witness an OD with volunteer responders | Identification of heuristics that determine whether someone with a response app will signal an OD or be alerted of OD episodes based on need for assistance and contextual information | Smartphone OD response app (UnityPhilly) | Use or decision-making |
| Marcu et al [27], 2019 | Acceptability of smartphone apps for facilitating layperson naloxone administration during opioid ODs | User requirements for a smartphone app to coordinate layperson administration of naloxone during an opioid OD | Hypothetical smartphone OD response and exchange of information on dangerous drug supply | Acceptability |
| Vilardaga et al [47], 2020 | Opioid-related smartphone apps (no intervention) | Characterize the purpose, audience, quality, and popularity of opioid-related smartphone apps | Smartphone OD response app (NaloxoFind and UnityPhilly) | Description of technologies; quality evaluation |
| Schwartz et al [40], 2020 | Smartphone apps to connect those who witness an OD with volunteer responders | To investigate whether equipping community members, including people who use drugs, with a smartphone app enabling them to signal and respond to suspected ODs would support naloxone administration in advance of EMS | Smartphone OD response app (UnityPhilly) | Effectiveness of tool (real life) |
| Tsang et al [26], 2020 | Different smartphone-based solutions to prevent OD | Willingness to use mobile phones for monitoring applications to mitigate OD; also asked about app to report tainted drug supply and receive OD alerts from others | Hypothetical app to alert bystanders with naloxone | Acceptability |
| Fairbairn et al [45], 2017 | Different interventions, including apps and sensors | Overview of trends in opioid use in North America and proposing potential solutions | Smartphone OD response app (Beacon Dispatch by Trek Medics) | Description of technologies |
| Goldfine et al [46], 2020 | Digital interventions for substance use; wearable sensors and wireless technology | To evaluate the advances in wearable and other wireless mHealthc technologies in the treatment of substance use disorders | Mention of the paper by Dhowan et al [25] on A2D2 closed-loop device | Description of technologies |
aDJI: Dà-Jiāng Innovations.
bEMS: emergency medical services.
cmHealth: mobile health.