Table 3.
Studies on combined alert and responder devices (N=11).
| Author, year | Intervention | Focus | Device | Theme |
| Bristowe et al [42], 2021 | Supervised consumption service | Protocol for piloting a telephone-based supervised opioid consumption service | Supervised consumption line | Acceptability |
| Imtiaz et al [43], 2021 | Closed-loop device formed by a sensor and nalmefene injector | Presents design of the closed-loop device with sensor for SpO2a and subsequent release of nalmefene when SpO2 goes <90% | Wearable noninvasive closed-loop device | Description of technologies |
| Chan et al [24], 2021 | Closed-loop device formed by a sensor and naloxone injector | Presented proof of concept and evaluated in 2 environments: SIFb and hospital environment simulating opioid-induced apnea in healthy participants | Closed-loop wearable injector system that measures respiration using a pair of on-body accelerometers; administers naloxone subcutaneously upon detection of an apnea | Evaluation of accuracy and efficacy of device |
| Kanter et al [38], 2021 | Wearable sensors that detect ODc and prompt an automated response; different functionalities offered but with special interest in closed-loop device that deploys naloxone | Willingness of people who use drugs to wear a device (wristband) that can detect an OD and prompt a response; different options are given and open questions allow for respondents’ input | Hypothetical wearable to detect an OD and elicit response with different options | Acceptability |
| Bardwell et al [28], 2021 | Alarm button to alert staff in building | Uses for OD alert device by women in supported housing | OD response button (Brave Button) | Use or decision-making |
| Bivens [41], 2018 | Smartphone app to use naloxone | To extend PXDd to include community-based and technology-based contexts of use by analyzing 2 case examples; next, to discuss implications of community-based and technology-based PXD within communities of people who use opioids, critiquing each method and suggesting 4 contexts of use-heuristic categories to consider when designing health communication information for users in these contexts | OD detection skin patch sensor (Spire) and OD response smartphone app (OD Help) | Description of technologies; implications of community-based and technology-based contexts |
| Dhowan et al [25], 2019 | Closed-loop device formed by a sensor and naloxone injector | Presented proof of concept and tested leakage in laboratory simulation (leakage with saline solution) and release capacity in mice | Subcutaneously placed device can be activated using an externally applied time-varying magnetic field from a wearable device; the device would be paired with an ECGe and respiratory rate sensor | Proof of concept; testing of release capacity in mice |
| Tsang et al [26], 2021 | Different smartphone-based solutions to prevent OD | Willingness to use mobile phones for monitoring applications to mitigate OD; also asked about app to report tainted drug supply and receive OD alerts from others | Smartphone OD alert and response app | Acceptability |
| Fairbairn et al [45], 2017 | Different interventions, including apps and sensors | Overview of trends in opioid use in North America and proposing potential solutions | Smartphone supervised consumption app (OD Help) | Description of technologies |
| Goldfine et al [46], 2020 | Digital interventions for substance use; wearable sensors and wireless technology | To evaluate the advances in wearable and other wireless mHealthf technologies in the treatment of substance use disorders | Mention of the A2D2 closed-loop device by Dhowan et al [25] | Description of technologies |
| Beaulieu et al [44], 2020 | AIg interventions for opioid use | Review of the gray literature to identify AI interventions specific to opioid use disorders being developed, implemented, and evaluated | Mention of HopeBand (prototype for wrist-mounted SpO2 sensor) and the A2D2 closed-loop device by Dhowan et al [25] | Description of technologies |
aSpO2: saturation of peripheral oxygen.
bSIF: supervised injection facility.
cOD: overdose.
dPXD: patient experience design.
eECG: electrocardiogram.
fmHealth: mobile health.
gAI: artificial intelligence.