Table 1. Baseline Characteristics and All-Cause Health Care Utilization After 1:2 Propensity Score Matching Among Individuals With Post–COVID-19 Condition and Those Without COVID-19.
| Characteristic | No. (%) | Standardized difference | |
|---|---|---|---|
| With post–COVID-19 condition | Without COVID-19 | ||
| Overall cohort | |||
| No. of patients | 13 435 | 26 870 | NA |
| Age, mean (SD), y | 50.1 (15.1) | 50.2 (15.4) | −0.0065 |
| Age categories, y | |||
| 18-29 | 1452 (10.8) | 2900 (10.8) | 0.0005 |
| 30-44 | 3131 (23.3) | 6211 (23.1) | 0.0045 |
| 45-64 | 6939 (51.7) | 13 877 (51.6) | 0.0001 |
| 65-74 | 1212 (9.0) | 2498 (9.3) | −0.0095 |
| ≥75 | 701 (5.2) | 1384 (5.2) | 0.0030 |
| Sex | |||
| Female | 7874 (58.6) | 15 672 (58.3) | 0.0057 |
| Male | 5561 (41.4) | 11 198 (41.7) | −0.0061 |
| Residence regiona | |||
| Northeast | 4290 (31.9) | 8790 (32.7) | −0.0167 |
| Midwest | 1890 (14.1) | 3595 (13.4) | 0.0200 |
| South | 4098 (30.5) | 8126 (30.2) | 0.0057 |
| West | 3156 (23.5) | 6359 (23.7) | −0.0041 |
| Missing | 1 (0.0) | 0 | 0.0122 |
| Zip code–level measures of social determinants of health | |||
| Race [proportions from census block group data], median (IQR) | |||
| Asian | 0.02 (0.00-0.08) | 0.02 (0.00-0.07) | −0.0041 |
| Black | 0.04 (0.01-0.17) | 0.04 (0.01-0.17) | −0.0138 |
| White | 0.77 (0.55-0.90) | 0.77 (0.53-0.91) | 0.0246 |
| Otherb | 0.01 (0.00-0.07) | 0.01 (0.00-0.07) | −0.0184 |
| Hispanic ethnicity [proportions from census block group data], median (IQR) | 0.11 (0.03-0.29) | 0.10 (0.02-0.31) | −0.0265 |
| Education status high school or above, mean (SD) | 0.87 (0.12) | 0.86 (0.13) | 0.0799 |
| Socioeconomic status | |||
| 1 (Most disadvantaged) | 2737 (20.4) | 5531 (20.6) | −0.0053 |
| 2 | 2734 (20.4) | 5436 (20.2) | 0.0030 |
| 3 | 3264 (24.3) | 6531 (24.3) | −0.0003 |
| 4 (Least disadvantaged) | 4531 (33.7) | 9032 (33.6) | 0.0024 |
| 5 (Missing) | 169 (1.3) | 340 (1.3) | −0.0007 |
| Elixhauser Comorbidity Index score, median (IQR) | 2.0 (0-3) | 2.0 (0-3) | 0.0116 |
| Elixhauser Comorbidity Index categories | |||
| 0 | 3548 (26.4) | 6821 (25.4) | 0.0234 |
| 1 | 2903 (21.6) | 5769 (21.5) | 0.0033 |
| 2 | 2169 (16.1) | 4492 (16.7) | −0.0155 |
| 3 | 1534 (11.4) | 3267 (12.2) | −0.0230 |
| ≥4 | 3281 (24.4) | 6521 (24.3) | 0.0036 |
| Baseline comorbidities | |||
| Asthma | 1777 (13.2) | 3529 (13.1) | 0.0028 |
| Chronic obstructive lung disorder | 2561 (19.1) | 5138 (19.1) | −0.0015 |
| Any cardiovascular disease | 1710 (12.7) | 3356 (12.5) | 0.0072 |
| Coronary artery disease | 1173 (8.7) | 2317 (8.6) | 0.0038 |
| Peripheral vascular disorders | 697 (5.2) | 1406 (5.2) | −0.0020 |
| Cerebrovascular disease | 269 (2.0) | 517 (1.9) | 0.0056 |
| Cirrhosis | 102 (0.8) | 217 (0.8) | −0.0055 |
| Hypertension | 5278 (39.3) | 10 593 (39.4) | −0.0028 |
| Chronic kidney disease | 1879 (14.0) | 3842 (14.3) | −0.0090 |
| End-stage kidney disease receiving dialysis | 159 (1.2) | 322 (1.2) | −0.0014 |
| Diabetes, type 1 | 189 (1.4) | 388 (1.4) | −0.0031 |
| Diabetes, type 2 | 2772 (20.6) | 5653 (21.0) | −0.0100 |
| Severe obesity (BMI ≥40) | 1385 (10.3) | 2781 (10.4) | −0.0013 |
| Cancer | 964 (7.2) | 1909 (7.1) | 0.0027 |
| Arrhythmias | 1664 (12.4) | 3315 (12.3) | 0.0015 |
| Inflammatory bowel disorder | 129 (1.0) | 262 (1.0) | −0.0015 |
| Rheumatoid arthritis | 364 (2.7) | 705 (2.6) | 0.0053 |
| Pregnancy | 190 (1.4) | 352 (1.3) | 0.0090 |
| Depression | 3170 (23.6) | 6431 (23.9) | −0.0080 |
| Anxiety | 3753 (27.9) | 7703 (28.7) | −0.0163 |
| Baseline all-cause 6-mo utilization, mean (SD) | |||
| Inpatient hospitalizations count | 0.18 (0.63) | 0.17 (0.59) | 0.0093 |
| Emergency department visits count | 0.35 (1.00) | 0.32 (1.00) | 0.0309 |
| Office visits count | 6 (6.1) | 6 (6.7) | 0.0539 |
| Baseline all-cause 6-mo overall medical cost PMPM, median (IQR), $ | 408.9 (124.4-1248.3) | 364.0 (99.4-1436.2) | −0.0049 |
| Hospitalized cohort | |||
| No. of patients | 3697 | 7394 | NA |
| Age, mean (SD), y | 57.4 (13.6) | 57.0 (13.7) | 0.0271 |
| Age categories, y | |||
| 18-29 | 111 (3.0) | 163 (2.2) | 0.0501 |
| 30-44 | 486 (13.2) | 1015 (13.7) | −0.0171 |
| 45-64 | 2123 (57.4) | 4255 (57.6) | −0.0025 |
| 65-74 | 611 (16.5) | 1240 (16.8) | −0.0065 |
| ≥75 | 366 (9.9) | 721 (9.8) | 0.0050 |
| Sex | |||
| Female | 1654 (44.7) | 3289 (44.5) | 0.0052 |
| Male | 2043 (55.3) | 4105 (55.5) | −0.0040 |
| Residence regiona | |||
| Northeast | 944 (25.5) | 1960 (26.5) | −0.0222 |
| Midwest | 693 (18.7) | 1353 (18.3) | 0.0115 |
| South | 1328 (35.9) | 2692 (36.4) | −0.0101 |
| West | 732 (19.8) | 1389 (18.8) | 0.0257 |
| Zip code–level measures of social determinants of health | |||
| Race [proportions from census block group data], median (IQR) | |||
| Asian | 0.01 (0.00-0.06) | 0.01 (0.00-0.06) | −0.0041 |
| Black | 0.06 (0.01-0.23) | 0.06 (0.01-0.24) | −0.0138 |
| White | 0.75 (0.49-0.90) | 0.76 (0.49-0.91) | 0.0246 |
| Otherb | 0.01 (0.00-0.07) | 0.01 (0.00-0.07) | 0.0035 |
| Hispanic ethnicity [proportions from census block group data], median (IQR) | 0.10 (0.02-0.29) | 0.09 (0.02-0.30) | −0.0265 |
| Education status high school or above, mean (SD) | 0.29 (0.12) | 0.28 (0.12) | 0.0833 |
| Socioeconomic status | |||
| 1 (Most disadvantaged) | 987 (26.7) | 1935 (26.2) | 0.0120 |
| 2 | 879 (23.8) | 1761 (23.8) | −0.0010 |
| 3 | 898 (24.3) | 1841 (24.9) | −0.0141 |
| 4 (Least disadvantaged) | 892 (24.1) | 1777 (24.0) | 0.0022 |
| 5 (Missing) | 41 (1.1) | 80 (1.1) | 0.0026 |
| Elixhauser Comorbidity Index score, median (IQR) | 2.0 (1-5) | 2.0 (1-4) | 0.0324 |
| Elixhauser Comorbidity Index categories | |||
| 0 | 814 (22.0) | 1575 (21.3) | 0.0174 |
| 1 | 596 (16.1) | 1233 (16.7) | −0.0150 |
| 2 | 534 (14.4) | 1082 (14.6) | −0.0054 |
| 3 | 462 (12.5) | 912 (12.3) | 0.0049 |
| ≥4 | 1291 (34.9) | 2592 (35.1) | −0.0028 |
| Baseline comorbidities | |||
| Asthma | 575 (15.6) | 1156 (15.6) | −0.0022 |
| Chronic obstructive lung disorder | 805 (21.8) | 1643 (22.2) | −0.0108 |
| Any cardiovascular disease | 713 (19.3) | 1356 (18.3) | 0.0242 |
| Coronary artery disease | 498 (13.5) | 988 (13.4) | 0.0032 |
| Peripheral vascular disorders | 309 (8.4) | 591 (8.0) | 0.0133 |
| Cerebrovascular disease | 102 (2.8) | 198 (2.7) | 0.0050 |
| Cirrhosis | 49 (1.3) | 92 (1.2) | 0.0072 |
| Hypertension | 1997 (54.0) | 4000 (54.1) | −0.0016 |
| Chronic kidney disease | 889 (24.1) | 1777 (24.0) | 0.0003 |
| End-stage kidney disease receiving dialysis | 111 (3.0) | 194 (2.6) | 0.0229 |
| Diabetes, type 1 | 73 (2.0) | 140 (1.9) | 0.0059 |
| Diabetes, type 2 | 1219 (33.0) | 2422 (32.8) | 0.0046 |
| Severe obesity (BMI ≥40) | 530 (14.3) | 1090 (14.7) | −0.0115 |
| Cancer | 347 (9.4) | 712 (9.6) | −0.0083 |
| Arrhythmias | 636 (17.2) | 1254 (17.0) | 0.0065 |
| Inflammatory bowel disorder | 36 (1.0) | 69 (0.9) | 0.0042 |
| Rheumatoid arthritis | 107 (2.9) | 218 (3.0) | −0.0032 |
| Pregnancy | 41 (1.1) | 78 (1.1) | 0.0052 |
| Depression | 589 (15.9) | 1192 (16.1) | −0.0052 |
| Anxiety | 626 (16.9) | 1267 (17.1) | −0.0054 |
| Baseline all-cause 6-mo utilization, mean (SD) | |||
| Inpatient hospitalizations count | 0.30 (0.87) | 0.27 (1.06) | 0.0093 |
| Emergency department visits count | 0.42 (1.10) | 0.36 (1.10) | 0.0309 |
| Office visits count | 5 (5.3) | 5 (5.6) | 0.0539 |
| Baseline all-cause 6-mo overall medical cost PMPM, median (IQR), $ | 373 (87.6-1543.4) | 328 (86.3-1563.5) | −0.0049 |
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared); NA, not applicable; PMPM, per member per month.
a
Northeast: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania; Midwest: Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota; South: Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas; West: Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Montana, Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Alaska, California, Hawaii, and Oregon.
b
Other race included American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and other reported race.