Table 2.

Effect of hypoglycemic drugs on gut microbiota.

Drugs	Gut microbiota changes	Effects on body metabolism
Metformin	Akkermansia muciniphila↑, A. muciniphila↑, Bifidobacterium↑, acetic acid and butyric acid↑ (de la Cuesta-Zuluaga et al., 2017); Lactobacillus, Akkermansia muciniphila↑ (Rodriguez et al., 2018); Lactobacillus↑ (Bauer et al., 2018); Escherichia, Bacteroides, Enterobacteriaceae and Citrobacter↑ (Pryor et al., 2019)	glucose tolerance↑, GLP-1 and PYY↑, GIP↓, LPS↓, insulin signaling↑, glucose homeostasis↑, appetite↓, weight↓, insulin sensitivity↑
Acarbose	Bifidobacterium, Bacteroidaceae↑ (Baxter et al., 2019); Actinomyces oris, Solobacterium Moorei, and Leptotrichia Trevisanii (Balaich et al., 2021)	glucose synthesis and absorption↓; deoxycholic acid and stone cholic acid↓, ursodeoxycholic acid↑;acetic acid and butyric acid↑
DPP-4 inhibitor	Bacteroides↑ (Liao et al., 2019); Proteobacteria↓ Lactobacillus↑ (Zhang M. et al., 2019)	GLP-1↑, insulin↑, Glucagon↓, succinate↑, glucose homeostasis↑