Table 2.
- Type of traumatic events reported by the study participants based on being a case of post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD) or not* (N=279).
| Type of traumatic event | Non-case of PTSD n (%) |
A case of PTSD n (%) |
Total n (%) |
χ2 P-value |
| “Oppressed because of ethnicity, religion, or sect” | ||||
| No | 52 (31.3) | 114 (68.7) | 166 (59.5) | χ2=0.010 |
| Yes | 36 (31.9) | 77 (68.1) | 113 (40.5) | p=0.921 |
| “Present while someone searched for people or things in your home” | ||||
| No | 8 (26.7) | 22 (73.3) | 30 (10.8) | χ2=0.370 |
| Yes | 80 (32.1) | 169(67.9) | 249 (89.2) | p=0.543 |
| “Searched” | ||||
| No | 33 (28.0) | 85 (72.0) | 118 (42.3) | χ2=1.21 |
| Yes | 55 (34.2) | 106 (65.8) | 161 (57.7) | p=0.271 |
| “Property looted or confiscated or destroyed” | ||||
| No | 21 (30.9) | 50 (69.0) | 71 (30.1) | χ2=0.170 |
| Yes | 67 (28.3) | 141 (71.7) | 208 (21.5) | p=0.680 |
| “Forced to leave your hometown and settle in a different part of the country with minimal services” | ||||
| No | 12 (27.3) | 32 (72.7) | 44 (15.8) | χ2=.441 |
| Yes | 76 (32.3) | 159 (67.7) | 235 84.2) | p=0.507 |
| “Imprisoned” | ||||
| No | 77 (33.3) | 154 (66.6) | 231 (82.8) | χ2=1.99 |
| Yes | 11 (22.9) | 37 (77.1) | 48 (17.2) | p=0.158 |
| “Suffered ill health without access to medical care or medicine” | ||||
| No | 33 (31.7) | 71 (68.3) | 104 (37.3) | χ2=0.003 |
| Yes | 55 (31.4) | 120 (68.6) | 175 (62.7) | p=0.958 |
| “Suffered from lack of food and cleaned water” | ||||
| No | 33 (30.3) | 76 (69.7) | 109 (39.1) | χ2=0.133 |
| Yes | 55 (32.4) | 115 (67.6) | 170 (60.9) | p=0.716 |
| “Forced to flee your country” | ||||
| No | 39 (14.0) | 76 (86.0) | 115 (20.4) | χ2=0.510 |
| Yes | 49 (36.5) | 115 (63.5) | 164 (79.6) | p=0.475 |
| “Expelled from your country based on ancestral origin, religion, or sect” | ||||
| No | 6 (24.0) | 19 (76.0) | 25 (9.0) | χ2=0.723 |
| Yes | 82 (32.3) | 172 (67.7) | 254 (91.0) | p=0.395 |
| “Lack shelter” | ||||
| No | 19 (14.0) | 34 (86.0) | 53 (20.4) | χ2=0.562 |
| Yes | 69 (36.5) | 157 (63.5) | 226 (79.6) | p=0.453 |
| “Witnessed the desecration or destruction of religious shrines or places of religious instruction” | ||||
| No | 9 (23.1) | 30 (76.9) | 39 (14.0) | χ2=1.50 |
| Yes | 79 (32.9) | 161 (67.1) | 240 (86.0) | p=0.220 |
| “Witnessed the arrest, torture, or execution of religious leaders or important members of tribe” | ||||
| No | 24 (39.3) | 37 (60.7) | 61 (21.9) | χ2= 2.20 |
| Yes | 64 (29.4) | 154 (70.6) | 218 (78.1) | p=0.138 |
| “Witnessed mass execution civilians” | ||||
| No | 70 (40.7) | 102 (59.3) | 172 (61.6) | χ2=17.4 |
| Yes | 18 (16.8) | 89 (83.2) | 107 (38.4) | p<0.001 |
| “Witnessed shelling, burning, or razing of residential areas or marshlands” | ||||
| No | 28 (70.0) | 12 (30.0) | 40 (14.3) | χ2= 32.0 |
| Yes | 60 (25.1) | 179 (74.9) | 239 (85.7) | p<0.001 |
| “Witnessed chemical attacks on residential areas or marshlands” | ||||
| No | 79 (35.7) | 142 (64.3) | 221 (79.2) | χ2=8.71 |
| Yes | 9 (15.5) | 49 (84.5) | 58 (20.8) | p<0.001 |
| Type of traumatic event | Non-case of PTSD n (%) |
A case of PTSD n (%) |
Total n (%) |
χ2 P-value |
| “Exposed to combat situation (explosions, artillery fire, shelling) or landmine” | ||||
| No | 5 (21.7) | 18 (78.3) | 23 (08.2) | χ2=1.12 |
| Yes | 83 (32.4) | 173 (67.6) | 256 (91.8) | p=0.291 |
| “Serious physical injury from combat situation or landmine” | ||||
| No | 82 (32.9) | 167 (67.1) | 249 (89.2) | χ2=2.10 |
| Yes | 6 (20.0) | 24 (80.0) | 30 (10.8) | p=0.150 |
| “Used as a human shield” | ||||
| No | 76 (32.8) | 156 (67.2) | 232 (83.2) | χ2=. 950 |
| Yes | 12 (25.5) | 35 (74.5) | 47 (16.8) | p=0.331 |
| “Serious physical injury of family member or friend from combat situation or landmine” | ||||
| No | 44 (43.6) | 57 (56.4) | 101 (36.2) | χ2=10.60 |
| Yes | 44 (24.7) | 134 (75.3) | 178 (63.8) | p=0.001 |
| “Witnessed rotting corpses” | ||||
| No | 62 (38.3) | 100 (61.7) | 162 (58.1) | χ2=8.10 |
| Yes | 26 (22.2) | 91 (77.8) | 117 (41.9) | p=0.004 |
| “Confined to home because of chaos and violence outside” | ||||
| No | 10 (47.6) | 11 (52.4) | 21 (07.5) | χ2=2.72 |
| Yes | 78 (30.2) | 180 (69.8) | 258 (92.5) | p=0.099 |
| “Witnessed someone being physically harmed (beating, knifing, and so on)” | ||||
| No | 35 (39.3) | 54 (60.7) | 89 (31.9) | χ2=3.67 |
| Yes | 53 (27.9) | 137 (72.1) | 190 (68.1) | p=0.055 |
| “Witnessed sexual abuse or rape” | ||||
| No | 78 (34.5) | 148 (65.5) | 226 (81.0) | χ2=4.87 |
| Yes | 10 (18.9) | 43 (81.1) | 53 (19.0) | p=0.027 |
| “Witnessed torture” | ||||
| No | 49 (40.2) | 73 (59.8) | 122 (43.7) | χ2 =7.47 |
| Yes | 39 (24.8) | 118 (75.2) | 157 (56.3) | p=0.006 |
| “Witnessed murder” | ||||
| No | 55 (39.3) | 85 (60.7) | 140 (50.2) | χ2=7.81 |
| Yes | 33 (23.7) | 106 (76.3) | 139 (49.8) | p=0.005 |
| “Forced to inform on someone placing them at risk of injury or death” | ||||
| No | 84 (31.8) | 180 (68.2) | 264 (94.6) | χ2=0.174 |
| Yes | 4 (26.7) | 11 (73.3) | 15 (05.4) | p=0.676 |
| “Forced to destroy someone’s property” | ||||
| No | 86 (32.2) | 181 (67.8) | 267 (95.7) | χ2=0.961 |
| Yes | 2 (16.7) | 10 (83.3) | 12 (04.3) | p=0.327 |
| “Forced to physically harm someone (beating, knifing, and so on)” | ||||
| No | 87 (32.1) | 184 (67.9) | 271 (97.1) | χ2=1.38 |
| Yes | 1 (12.5) | 7 (87.5) | 8 (02.9) | p=0.240 |
| “Murder or violent death of family member (child, spouse, and so on)” | ||||
| No | 49 (39.2) | 76 (60.8) | 125 (44.8) | χ2=6.15 |
| Yes | 39 (25.3) | 115 (74.6) | 154 (55.2) | p=0.013 |
| “Received the body of a family member (child, spouse, and so on) and prohibited from mourning them and performing burial rites” | ||||
| No | 77 (38.3) | 124 (61.7) | 201 (72.0) | χ2=15.2 |
| Yes | 11 (14.1) | 67 (85.9) | 78 (28.0) | p<0.001 |
| “Disappearance of a family member (child, spouse, and so on) or disappearance of a friend” | ||||
| No | 63 (40.6) | 92 (59.4) | 155 (55.6) | χ2 =13.4 |
| Yes | 25 (20.2) | 99 (79.8) | 124 (44.4) | p<0.001 |
| Type of traumatic event | Non-case of PTSD n (%) |
A case of PTSD n (%) |
Total n (%) |
χ2 P-values |
| “Family member (child, spouse, and so on) or friend kidnapped” | ||||
| No | 76 (39.3) | 135 (60.7) | 211 (21.9) | χ2 =10.8 |
| Yes | 12 (29.4) | 54 (70.6) | 66 (78.1) | p=0.001 |
| “Family member (child, spouse, and so on) or friend taken as a hostage” | ||||
| No | 76 (36.0) | 135 (64.0) | 211 (75.6) | χ2 =7.38 |
| Yes | 12 (18.2) | 54 (81.8) | 66 (78.1) | p=0.007 |
| Someone informed on you placing you at risk of injury or death | ||||
| No | 80 (33.5) | 159 (66.5) | 239 (85.7) | χ2 =2.65 |
| Yes | 8 (20.0) | 32 (80.0) | 40 (14.3) | p=0.103 |
| Physically harmed (beaten, knifed, and so on) | ||||
| No | 69 (31.1) | 153 (68.9) | 222 (79.6) | χ2=0.093 p=0.760 |
| Yes | 19 (33.3) | 38 (66.7) | 57 (20.4) | |
| Kidnapped | ||||
| No | 88 (32.6) | 182 (67.4) | 270 (96.8) | χ2= 4.29 p=0.038 |
| Yes | 0 (0) | 9 (100) | 9 (03.2) | |
| Taken as a hostage | ||||
| No | 83 (31.4) | 181 (68.6) | 264 (94.6) | χ2=0.02 p=0.878 |
| Yes | 5 (33.3) | 10 (66.7) | 15 (05.4) | |
| Sexually abused or raped (such as forced sexual activity) | ||||
| No | 88 (39.3) | 165 (60.7) | 253 (90.7) | χ2=12.72 |
| Yes | 0 (0) | 26 (100) | 26 (09.3) | p<0.001 |
| Tortured (such as while in captivity you received deliberate and systematic infliction of physical and/or mental suffering) | ||||
| No | 79 (35.1) | 146 (64.9) | 225 (80.6) | χ2= 6.86 p=0.009 |
| Yes | 9 (16.7) | 45(83.3) | 54 (19.4) | |
Values are presented as number and percentage (%). *Mean score >2.5 on the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire (HTQ)-16’s sub-items or entire scale (HTQ-45) indicated a case of PTSD, χ2: Chi-square, p: significant level